Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Infectious Disorders - Drug Targets

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1871-5265
ISSN (Online): 2212-3989

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Review Article

Investigation of Structural, Treatment, and Clinical Characteristics of COVID-19 Along with the Challenges Caused by its Prevalence

Author(s): Maham Doagooyan, Seyedeh Hoda Alavizadeh, Javad Akhtari, Amirhossein Sahebkar, Saeed Ghanbari Hasan Kiade, Pariya Haghgoo Kochesfahani and Fatemeh Gheybi*

Volume 22, Issue 1, 2022

Published on: 22 March, 2021

Article ID: e220321192415 Pages: 12

DOI: 10.2174/1871526521666210322160038

Price: $65

Open Access Journals Promotions 2
conference banner
Abstract

In late 2019, a report from China was published stating a disease with an unknown cause. After that, the outbreak of the COVID-19 caused a pandemic in the world. On March 11, 2020, the outbreak of this virus was reported in 100 countries.

The virus is currently spreading rapidly around the world. In the past, coronaviruses caused lifethreatening diseases such as SARS and MERS in some areas of the world. Although there is still a debate about the origin of this new coronavirus, it is most likely linked with some animals, including bats, civet, and pangolin. In this review, we try to describe the features of the new coronavirus as well as the recent diagnostic and therapeutic findings.

Keywords: COVID-19, diagnosis, treatment, coronavirus, pandemic, SARS-CoV-2.

Graphical Abstract

[1]
Tyrrell, D.A.; Bynoe, M.L. Cultivation of viruses from a high proportion of patients with colds. Lancet, 1966, 1(7428), 76-77.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(66)92364-6] [PMID: 4158999]
[2]
Eurosurveillance Editorial, T. Updated rapid risk assessment from ECDC on the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic: increased transmission in the EU/EEA and the UK. Euro surveillance : bulletin Europeen sur les maladies transmissibles = European communicable disease bulletin, 2020, 25(10)Available from:. https://www.eurosurveillance.org/content/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.10.2003121
[3]
Kahn, J.S.; McIntosh, K. History and recent advances in coronavirus discovery. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J., 2005, 24(11)(Suppl.), S223-S227.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.inf.0000188166.17324.60] [PMID: 16378050]
[4]
Anthony, S.J.; Johnson, C.K.; Greig, D.J.; Kramer, S.; Che, X.; Wells, H.; Hicks, A.L.; Joly, D.O.; Wolfe, N.D.; Daszak, P.; Karesh, W.; Lipkin, W.I.; Morse, S.S.; Mazet, J.A.K.; Goldstein, T. Global patterns in coronavirus diversity. Virus Evol., 2017, 3(1) ,vex012
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ve/vex012] [PMID: 28630747]
[5]
Kim, J.Y.; Ko, J.H. Viral load kinetics of SARS-CoV-2 infection in first two patients in Korea.2020, 35(7), 86.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3346/jkms.2020.35.e86]
[6]
Zhu, N.; Zhang, D.; Wang, W.; Li, X.; Yang, B.; Song, J.; Zhao, X.; Huang, B.; Shi, W.; Lu, R.; Niu, P.; Zhan, F.; Ma, X.; Wang, D.; Xu, W.; Wu, G.; Gao, G.F.; Tan, W. A novel coronavirus from patients with pneumonia in China, 2019. N. Engl. J. Med., 2020, 382(8), 727-733.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2001017] [PMID: 31978945]
[7]
Kolifarhood, G.; Aghaali, M.; Mozafar Saadati, H.; Taherpour, N.; Rahimi, S.; Izadi, N.; Hashemi Nazari, S.S. Epidemiological and clinical aspects of COVID-19; a narrative review. Arch Acad Emerg Med, 2020, 8(1) ,e41
[PMID: 32259130]
[8]
Roy, D.; Tripathy, S.; Kar, S.K.; Sharma, N.; Verma, S.K.; Kaushal, V. Study of knowledge, attitude, anxiety & perceived mental healthcare need in Indian population during COVID-19 pandemic. Asian J. Psychiatr., 2020, 51 ,102083
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102083] [PMID: 32283510]
[9]
Mousavizadeh, L.; Ghasemi, S. Genotype and phenotype of COVID-19: Their roles in pathogenesis. J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect., 2020 S1684-1182(20), 30082-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmii.2020.03.022] [PMID: 32265180]
[10]
de Haan, C.A.; Kuo, L.; Masters, P.S.; Vennema, H.; Rottier, P.J. Coronavirus particle assembly: primary structure requirements of the membrane protein. J. Virol., 1998, 72(8), 6838-6850.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.72.8.6838-6850.1998] [PMID: 9658133]
[11]
Woo, P.C.; Huang, Y.; Lau, S.K.; Yuen, K.Y. Coronavirus genomics and bioinformatics analysis. Viruses, 2010, 2(8), 1804-1820.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v2081803] [PMID: 21994708]
[12]
Guo, Y-R. The origin, transmission and clinical therapies on coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak–an update on the status. Mil. Med. Res., 2020, 7(1), 1-10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40779-020-00240-0] [PMID: 31928528]
[13]
Li, C.; Yang, Y.; Ren, L. Genetic evolution analysis of 2019 novel coronavirus and coronavirus from other species. Infect. Genet. Evol., 2020, 82 ,104285
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2020.104285] [PMID: 32169673]
[14]
Lai, C-C.; Shih, T.P.; Ko, W.C.; Tang, H.J.; Hsueh, P.R. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19): The epidemic and the challenges. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents, 2020, 55(3) ,105924
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105924] [PMID: 32081636]
[15]
Liu, P. Are pangolins the intermediate host of the 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV)? bioRxiv, 2019. Available from https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1008421
[16]
Zhou, P.; Yang, X.L.; Wang, X.G.; Hu, B.; Zhang, L.; Zhang, W.; Si, H.R.; Zhu, Y.; Li, B.; Huang, C.L.; Chen, H.D.; Chen, J.; Luo, Y.; Guo, H.; Jiang, R.D.; Liu, M.Q.; Chen, Y.; Shen, X.R.; Wang, X.; Zheng, X.S.; Zhao, K.; Chen, Q.J.; Deng, F.; Liu, L.L.; Yan, B.; Zhan, F.X.; Wang, Y.Y.; Xiao, G.F.; Shi, Z.L. A pneumonia outbreak associated with a new coronavirus of probable bat origin. Nature, 2020, 579(7798), 270-273.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2012-7] [PMID: 32015507]
[17]
Hoffmann, M.; Kleine-Weber, H.; Schroeder, S.; Krüger, N.; Herrler, T.; Erichsen, S.; Schiergens, T.S.; Herrler, G.; Wu, N.H.; Nitsche, A.; Müller, M.A.; Drosten, C.; Pöhlmann, S. SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor. Cell, 2020, 181(2), 271-280.e8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2020.02.052] [PMID: 32142651]
[18]
Wrapp, D.; Wang, N. Cryo-EM structure of the 2019-nCoV spike in the prefusion conformation. 2020, 367(6483), 1260-1263.
[19]
Javadzadeh, Y.; Bahari, L.A. Therapeutic nanostructures for dermal and transdermal drug delivery. Nano-and Microscale Drug Delivery Systems; Elsevier, 2017, pp. 131-146.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-52727-9.00008-X]
[20]
Sola, I.; Almazán, F.; Zúñiga, S.; Enjuanes, L. Continuous and discontinuous RNA synthesis in coronaviruses. Annu. Rev. Virol., 2015, 2(1), 265-288.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-virology-100114-055218] [PMID: 26958916]
[21]
Tang, X. On the origin and continuing evolution of SARS-CoV-2. Natl. Sci. Rev., 2020, 7(6), 1012-1023.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwaa036]
[22]
Lei, J.; Li, J.; Li, X.; Qi, X. CT imaging of the 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) pneumonia. Radiology, 2020, 295(1), 18-18.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1148/radiol.2020200236] [PMID: 32003646]
[23]
Alemdar, E. Chronobiological Treatment Approach in COVID-19; 12(4), 988.
[24]
Huang, C.; Wang, Y.; Li, X.; Ren, L.; Zhao, J.; Hu, Y.; Zhang, L.; Fan, G.; Xu, J.; Gu, X.; Cheng, Z.; Yu, T.; Xia, J.; Wei, Y.; Wu, W.; Xie, X.; Yin, W.; Li, H.; Liu, M.; Xiao, Y.; Gao, H.; Guo, L.; Xie, J.; Wang, G.; Jiang, R.; Gao, Z.; Jin, Q.; Wang, J.; Cao, B. Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. Lancet, 2020, 395(10223), 497-506.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30183-5] [PMID: 31986264]
[25]
Assiri, A.; Al-Tawfiq, J.A.; Al-Rabeeah, A.A.; Al-Rabiah, F.A.; Al-Hajjar, S.; Al-Barrak, A.; Flemban, H.; Al-Nassir, W.N.; Balkhy, H.H.; Al-Hakeem, R.F.; Makhdoom, H.Q.; Zumla, A.I.; Memish, Z.A. Epidemiological, demographic, and clinical characteristics of 47 cases of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus disease from Saudi Arabia: a descriptive study. Lancet Infect. Dis., 2013, 13(9), 752-761.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(13)70204-4] [PMID: 23891402]
[26]
Lee, N.; Hui, D.; Wu, A.; Chan, P.; Cameron, P.; Joynt, G.M.; Ahuja, A.; Yung, M.Y.; Leung, C.B.; To, K.F.; Lui, S.F.; Szeto, C.C.; Chung, S.; Sung, J.J. A major outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome in Hong Kong. N. Engl. J. Med., 2003, 348(20), 1986-1994.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa030685] [PMID: 12682352]
[27]
Phan, L.T.; Nguyen, T.V.; Luong, Q.C.; Nguyen, T.V.; Nguyen, H.T.; Le, H.Q.; Nguyen, T.T.; Cao, T.M.; Pham, Q.D. Importation and human-to-human transmission of a novel coronavirus in Vietnam. N. Engl. J. Med., 2020, 382(9), 872-874.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc2001272] [PMID: 31991079]
[28]
Bai, Y.; Yao, L.; Wei, T.; Tian, F.; Jin, D.Y.; Chen, L.; Wang, M. Presumed asymptomatic carrier transmission of COVID-19. JAMA, 2020, 323(14), 1406-1407.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.2565] [PMID: 32083643]
[29]
Organization, W.H. Laboratory testing for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in suspected human cases: interim guidance, 2 March 2020; World Health Organization, 2020.
[30]
Zheng, F.; Tang, W.; Li, H.; Huang, Y.X.; Xie, Y.L.; Zhou, Z.G. Clinical characteristics of 161 cases of corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Changsha. Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci., 2020, 24(6), 3404-3410.
[PMID: 32271459]
[31]
Gandolfini, I.; Delsante, M.; Fiaccadori, E.; Zaza, G.; Manenti, L.; Degli Antoni, A.; Peruzzi, L.; Riella, L.V.; Cravedi, P.; Maggiore, U. COVID-19 in kidney transplant recipients. Am. J. Transplant., 2020, 20(7), 1941-1943.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ajt.15891] [PMID: 32233067]
[32]
Sethuraman, N.; Jeremiah, S.S.; Ryo, A. Interpreting diagnostic tests for SARS-CoV-2. JAMA, 2020, 323(22), 2249-2251.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.8259] [PMID: 32374370]
[33]
Kitagawa, Y.; Orihara, Y.; Kawamura, R.; Imai, K.; Sakai, J.; Tarumoto, N.; Matsuoka, M.; Takeuchi, S.; Maesaki, S.; Maeda, T. Evaluation of rapid diagnosis of novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) using loop-mediated isothermal amplification. J. Clin. Virol., 2020, 129 ,104446
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcv.2020.104446] [PMID: 32512376]
[34]
Wehrhahn, M.C.; Robson, J.; Brown, S.; Bursle, E.; Byrne, S.; New, D.; Chong, S.; Newcombe, J.P.; Siversten, T.; Hadlow, N. Self-collection: An appropriate alternative during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. J. Clin. Virol., 2020, 128 ,104417
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcv.2020.104417] [PMID: 32403007]
[35]
Arrighetti, N.; Corbo, C.; Evangelopoulos, M.; Pastò, A.; Zuco, V.; Tasciotti, E. Exosome-like nanovectors for drug delivery in cancer. Curr. Med. Chem., 2019, 26(33), 6132-6148.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/0929867325666180831150259] [PMID: 30182846]
[36]
Okba, N.M.A.; Müller, M.A.; Li, W.; Wang, C. GeurtsvanKessel, C.H.; Corman, V.M.; Lamers, M.M.; Sikkema, R.S.; de Bruin, E.; Chandler, F.D.; Yazdanpanah, Y.; Le Hingrat, Q.; Descamps, D.; Houhou-Fidouh, N.; Reusken, C.B.E.M.; Bosch, B.J.; Drosten, C.; Koopmans, M.P.G.; Haagmans, B.L. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2− specific antibody responses in coronavirus disease patients. Emerg. Infect. Dis., 2020, 26(7), 1478-1488.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid2607.200841] [PMID: 32267220]
[37]
Bian, Y.; Wei, J.; Zhao, C.; Li, G. Natural polyphenols targeting senescence: a novel prevention and therapy strategy for cancer. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 2020, 21(2), 684.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms21020684] [PMID: 31968672]
[38]
Askarizadeh, A.; Badiee, A.; Khamesipour, A.J.E.O.o.D.D. Development of nano-carriers for Leishmania vaccine delivery.2020, 17(2), 167-187.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17425247.2020.1713746]
[39]
Padoan, A.; Sciacovelli, L.; Basso, D.; Negrini, D.; Zuin, S.; Cosma, C.; Faggian, D.; Matricardi, P.; Plebani, M. IgA-Ab response to spike glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-2 in patients with COVID-19: A longitudinal study. Clin. Chim. Acta, 2020, 507, 164-166.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cca.2020.04.026] [PMID: 32343948]
[40]
Hsueh, P-R.; Huang, L.M.; Chen, P.J.; Kao, C.L.; Yang, P.C. Chronological evolution of IgM, IgA, IgG and neutralisation antibodies after infection with SARS-associated coronavirus. Clin. Microbiol. Infect., 2004, 10(12), 1062-1066.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2004.01009.x] [PMID: 15606632]
[41]
Ramsey, A.W.a.L. .Many of the coronavirus' most mysterious and dangerous symptoms have one thing in common: blood clots. This isn't solely a respiratory infection. 2020; , 1-13.
[42]
Bi, Q. Epidemiology and Transmission of COVID-19 in Shenzhen China: Analysis of 391 cases and 1,286 of their close contacts; MedRxiv, 2020, pp. 1-21.
[43]
Mo, P. Clinical characteristics of refractory COVID-19 pneumonia in Wuhan, China. Clin. Infect. Dis., 2021, 73(11), e4208-13.
[44]
Tian, X.; Li, C.; Huang, A.; Xia, S.; Lu, S.; Shi, Z.; Lu, L.; Jiang, S.; Yang, Z.; Wu, Y.; Ying, T. Potent binding of 2019 novel coronavirus spike protein by a SARS coronavirus-specific human monoclonal antibody. Emerg. Microbes Infect., 2020, 9(1), 382-385.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/22221751.2020.1729069] [PMID: 32065055]
[45]
Masters, P.S. The molecular biology of coronaviruses. Adv. Virus Res., 2006, 66, 193-292.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0065-3527(06)66005-3] [PMID: 16877062]
[46]
Banerjee, A.; Kulcsar, K.; Misra, V.; Frieman, M.; Mossman, K. Bats and Coronaviruses. Viruses, 2019, 11(1), 41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v11010041] [PMID: 30634396]
[47]
Li, F. Structure, function, and evolution of coronavirus spike proteins. Annu. Rev. Virol., 2016, 3(1), 237-261.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-virology-110615-042301] [PMID: 27578435]
[48]
Kruse, R.L. Therapeutic strategies in an outbreak scenario to treat the novel coronavirus originating in Wuhan, China. F1000 Res., 2020, 9, 72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.22211.2] [PMID: 32117569]
[49]
Shanmugaraj, B.; Siriwattananon, K.; Wangkanont, K.; Phoolcharoen, W. Perspectives on monoclonal antibody therapy as potential therapeutic intervention for Coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19). Asian Pac. J. Allergy Immunol., 2020, 38(1), 10-18.
[PMID: 32134278]
[50]
Sui, J.; Li, W.; Roberts, A.; Matthews, L.J.; Murakami, A.; Vogel, L.; Wong, S.K.; Subbarao, K.; Farzan, M.; Marasco, W.A. Evaluation of human monoclonal antibody 80R for immunoprophylaxis of severe acute respiratory syndrome by an animal study, epitope mapping, and analysis of spike variants. J. Virol., 2005, 79(10), 5900-5906.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.79.10.5900-5906.2005] [PMID: 15857975]
[51]
Daw, M.A. Corona virus infection in Syria, Libya and Yemen; an alarming devastating threat. Travel Med. Infect. Dis., 2020, 37 ,101652
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.101652] [PMID: 32247929]
[52]
Yousefzadegan, S.; Rezaei, N. Case Report: Death Due to Novel Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) in Three Brothers. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 2020. ,tpmd200240
[53]
Wang, D.; Hu, B.; Hu, C.; Zhu, F.; Liu, X.; Zhang, J.; Wang, B.; Xiang, H.; Cheng, Z.; Xiong, Y.; Zhao, Y.; Li, Y.; Wang, X.; Peng, Z. Clinical characteristics of 138 hospitalized patients with 2019 novel coronavirus–infected pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA, 2020, 323(11), 1061-1069.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.1585] [PMID: 32031570]
[54]
Chan, J.F-W.; Yuan, S.; Kok, K.H.; To, K.K.; Chu, H.; Yang, J.; Xing, F.; Liu, J.; Yip, C.C.; Poon, R.W.; Tsoi, H.W.; Lo, S.K.; Chan, K.H.; Poon, V.K.; Chan, W.M.; Ip, J.D.; Cai, J.P.; Cheng, V.C.; Chen, H.; Hui, C.K.; Yuen, K.Y. A familial cluster of pneumonia associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person transmission: a study of a family cluster. Lancet, 2020, 395(10223), 514-523.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30154-9] [PMID: 31986261]
[55]
Rahimzadeh, G. COVID-19 infection in Iranian children: a case series of 9 patients. J. Ped. Rev., 2020, 8(2), 139-144.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.32598/jpr.8.2.139]
[56]
Zhu, H.; Wang, L.; Fang, C.; Peng, S.; Zhang, L.; Chang, G.; Xia, S.; Zhou, W. Clinical analysis of 10 neonates born to mothers with 2019-nCoV pneumonia. Transl. Pediatr., 2020, 9(1), 51-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/tp.2020.02.06] [PMID: 32154135]
[57]
Farahnak Assadi, M.D. chgeck this?
[58]
Glowacka, I.; Bertram, S.; Herzog, P.; Pfefferle, S.; Steffen, I.; Muench, M.O.; Simmons, G.; Hofmann, H.; Kuri, T.; Weber, F.; Eichler, J.; Drosten, C.; Pöhlmann, S. Differential downregulation of ACE2 by the spike proteins of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus and human coronavirus NL63. J. Virol., 2010, 84(2), 1198-1205.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01248-09] [PMID: 19864379]
[59]
Cristiani, L.; Mancino, E.; Matera, L.; Nenna, R.; Pierangeli, A.; Scagnolari, C.; Midulla, F. Will children reveal their secret? The coronavirus dilemma. Eur. Respir. J., 2020, 55(4) ,2000749
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1183/13993003.00749-2020] [PMID: 32241833]
[60]
Chen, J. Individual variation of the SARS-CoV2 receptor ACE2 gene expression and regulation. Aging Cell, 2020, 19(7) ,e13168
[61]
Islam, M.T.; Sarkar, C.; El-Kersh, D.M.; Jamaddar, S.; Uddin, S.J.; Shilpi, J.A.; Mubarak, M.S. Natural products and their derivatives against coronavirus: A review of the non-clinical and pre-clinical data. Phytother. Res., 2020, 34(10), 2471-2492.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ptr.6700] [PMID: 32248575]
[62]
Li, S.Y.; Chen, C.; Zhang, H.Q.; Guo, H.Y.; Wang, H.; Wang, L.; Zhang, X.; Hua, S.N.; Yu, J.; Xiao, P.G.; Li, R.S.; Tan, X. Identification of natural compounds with antiviral activities against SARS-associated coronavirus. Antiviral Res., 2005, 67(1), 18-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.antiviral.2005.02.007] [PMID: 15885816]
[63]
Lau, K-M.; Lee, K.M.; Koon, C.M.; Cheung, C.S.; Lau, C.P.; Ho, H.M.; Lee, M.Y.; Au, S.W.; Cheng, C.H.; Lau, C.B.; Tsui, S.K.; Wan, D.C.; Waye, M.M.; Wong, K.B.; Wong, C.K.; Lam, C.W.; Leung, P.C.; Fung, K.P. Immunomodulatory and anti-SARS activities of Houttuynia cordata. J. Ethnopharmacol., 2008, 118(1), 79-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2008.03.018] [PMID: 18479853]
[64]
Chen, C-J.; Michaelis, M.; Hsu, H.K.; Tsai, C.C.; Yang, K.D.; Wu, Y.C.; Cinatl, J., Jr; Doerr, H.W. Toona sinensis Roem tender leaf extract inhibits SARS coronavirus replication. J. Ethnopharmacol., 2008, 120(1), 108-111.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2008.07.048] [PMID: 18762235]
[65]
Kim, D-C.; Ku, S-K.; Bae, J-S. Anticoagulant activities of curcumin and its derivative. In Vivo, 2012.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5483/BMBRep.2012.45.4.221]
[66]
Davie, E.W. Biochemical and molecular aspects of the coagulation cascade.Thrombosis and haemostasis,, 1995, 73(01), 001-006.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0038-1642645]
[67]
Davie, E.W.; Fujikawa, K.; Kisiel, W. The coagulation cascade: initiation, maintenance, and regulation. Biochemistry, 1991, 30(43), 10363-10370.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/bi00107a001] [PMID: 1931959]
[68]
Anand, P.; Thomas, S.G.; Kunnumakkara, A.B.; Sundaram, C.; Harikumar, K.B.; Sung, B.; Tharakan, S.T.; Misra, K.; Priyadarsini, I.K.; Rajasekharan, K.N.; Aggarwal, B.B. Biological activities of curcumin and its analogues (Congeners) made by man and Mother Nature. Biochem. Pharmacol., 2008, 76(11), 1590-1611.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bcp.2008.08.008] [PMID: 18775680]
[69]
Xu, Z. Nelfinavir was predicted to be a potential inhibitor of 2019-nCov main protease by an integrative approach combining homology modelling, molecular docking and binding free energy calculation. bioRxiv, 2020.
[70]
Lu, H. Drug treatment options for the 2019-new coronavirus (2019-nCoV). Biosci. Trends, 2020, 14(1), 69-71.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5582/bst.2020.01020] [PMID: 31996494]
[71]
Dong, L.; Hu, S.; Gao, J. Discovering drugs to treat coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Drug Discov. Ther., 2020, 14(1), 58-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5582/ddt.2020.01012] [PMID: 32147628]
[72]
Rothan, H.A.; Byrareddy, S.N. The epidemiology and pathogenesis of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak. J. Autoimmun., 2020, 109 ,102433
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaut.2020.102433] [PMID: 32113704]
[73]
Wang, Y.; Zhang, D.; Du, G.; Du, R.; Zhao, J.; Jin, Y.; Fu, S.; Gao, L.; Cheng, Z.; Lu, Q.; Hu, Y.; Luo, G.; Wang, K.; Lu, Y.; Li, H.; Wang, S.; Ruan, S.; Yang, C.; Mei, C.; Wang, Y.; Ding, D.; Wu, F.; Tang, X.; Ye, X.; Ye, Y.; Liu, B.; Yang, J.; Yin, W.; Wang, A.; Fan, G.; Zhou, F.; Liu, Z.; Gu, X.; Xu, J.; Shang, L.; Zhang, Y.; Cao, L.; Guo, T.; Wan, Y.; Qin, H.; Jiang, Y.; Jaki, T.; Hayden, F.G.; Horby, P.W.; Cao, B.; Wang, C. Remdesivir in adults with severe COVID-19: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre trial. Lancet, 2020, 395(10236), 1569-1578.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31022-9] [PMID: 32423584]
[74]
Pizzorno, A.; Padey, B.; Julien, T.; Trouillet-Assant, S.; Traversier, A.; Errazuriz-Cerda, E.; Fouret, J.; Dubois, J.; Gaymard, A.; Lescure, F.X.; Dulière, V.; Brun, P.; Constant, S.; Poissy, J.; Lina, B.; Yazdanpanah, Y.; Terrier, O.; Rosa-Calatrava, M. Characterization and treatment of SARS-CoV-2 in nasal and bronchial human airway epithelia. Cell Rep Med, 2020, 1(4) ,100059
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrm.2020.100059] [PMID: 32835306]
[75]
Beigel, J.H. Remdesivir for the treatment of Covid-19—preliminary report. N. Engl. J. Med., 2020.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2007764]
[76]
Toots, M.; Yoon, J.J.; Cox, R.M.; Hart, M.; Sticher, Z.M.; Makhsous, N.; Plesker, R.; Barrena, A.H.; Reddy, P.G.; Mitchell, D.G.; Shean, R.C.; Bluemling, G.R.; Kolykhalov, A.A.; Greninger, A.L.; Natchus, M.G.; Painter, G.R.; Plemper, R.K. Characterization of orally efficacious influenza drug with high resistance barrier in ferrets and human airway epithelia. Sci. Transl. Med., 2019, 11(515) ,eaax5866
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.aax5866] [PMID: 31645453]
[77]
Stockman, L.J.; Bellamy, R.; Garner, P. SARS: systematic review of treatment effects. PLoS Med., 2006, 3(9) ,e343
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0030343] [PMID: 16968120]
[78]
Hung, I.F-N.; Lung, K.C.; Tso, E.Y.; Liu, R.; Chung, T.W.; Chu, M.Y.; Ng, Y.Y.; Lo, J.; Chan, J.; Tam, A.R.; Shum, H.P.; Chan, V.; Wu, A.K.; Sin, K.M.; Leung, W.S.; Law, W.L.; Lung, D.C.; Sin, S.; Yeung, P.; Yip, C.C.; Zhang, R.R.; Fung, A.Y.; Yan, E.Y.; Leung, K.H.; Ip, J.D.; Chu, A.W.; Chan, W.M.; Ng, A.C.; Lee, R.; Fung, K.; Yeung, A.; Wu, T.C.; Chan, J.W.; Yan, W.W.; Chan, W.M.; Chan, J.F.; Lie, A.K.; Tsang, O.T.; Cheng, V.C.; Que, T.L.; Lau, C.S.; Chan, K.H.; To, K.K.; Yuen, K.Y. Triple combination of interferon beta-1b, lopinavir-ritonavir, and ribavirin in the treatment of patients admitted to hospital with COVID-19: an open-label, randomised, phase 2 trial. Lancet, 2020, 395(10238), 1695-1704.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31042-4] [PMID: 32401715]
[79]
Lai, S.T. Treatment of severe acute respiratory syndrome. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis., 2005, 24(9), 583-591.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10096-005-0004-z] [PMID: 16172857]
[80]
Soo, Y.O.; Cheng, Y.; Wong, R.; Hui, D.S.; Lee, C.K.; Tsang, K.K.; Ng, M.H.; Chan, P.; Cheng, G.; Sung, J.J. Retrospective comparison of convalescent plasma with continuing high-dose methylprednisolone treatment in SARS patients. Clin. Microbiol. Infect., 2004, 10(7), 676-678.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2004.00956.x] [PMID: 15214887]
[81]
Bloch, E.M.; Shoham, S.; Casadevall, A.; Sachais, B.S.; Shaz, B.; Winters, J.L.; van Buskirk, C.; Grossman, B.J.; Joyner, M.; Henderson, J.P.; Pekosz, A.; Lau, B.; Wesolowski, A.; Katz, L.; Shan, H.; Auwaerter, P.G.; Thomas, D.; Sullivan, D.J.; Paneth, N.; Gehrie, E.; Spitalnik, S.; Hod, E.A.; Pollack, L.; Nicholson, W.T.; Pirofski, L.A.; Bailey, J.A.; Tobian, A.A. Deployment of convalescent plasma for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19. J. Clin. Invest., 2020, 130(6), 2757-2765.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1172/JCI138745] [PMID: 32254064]
[82]
Rajendran, K.; Krishnasamy, N.; Rangarajan, J.; Rathinam, J.; Natarajan, M.; Ramachandran, A. Convalescent plasma transfusion for the treatment of COVID-19: Systematic review. J. Med. Virol., 2020, 92(9), 1475-1483.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmv.25961] [PMID: 32356910]
[83]
Gu, H.; Xie, Z.; Li, T.; Zhang, S.; Lai, C.; Zhu, P.; Wang, K.; Han, L.; Duan, Y.; Zhao, Z.; Yang, X.; Xing, L.; Zhang, P.; Wang, Z.; Li, R.; Yu, J.J.; Wang, X.; Yang, P. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 inhibits lung injury induced by respiratory syncytial virus. Sci. Rep., 2016, 6, 19840.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep19840] [PMID: 26813885]
[84]
Imai, Y.; Kuba, K.; Rao, S.; Huan, Y.; Guo, F.; Guan, B.; Yang, P.; Sarao, R.; Wada, T.; Leong-Poi, H.; Crackower, M.A.; Fukamizu, A.; Hui, C.C.; Hein, L.; Uhlig, S.; Slutsky, A.S.; Jiang, C.; Penninger, J.M. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 protects from severe acute lung failure. Nature, 2005, 436(7047), 112-116.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature03712] [PMID: 16001071]
[85]
Zou, Z.; Yan, Y.; Shu, Y.; Gao, R.; Sun, Y.; Li, X.; Ju, X.; Liang, Z.; Liu, Q.; Zhao, Y.; Guo, F.; Bai, T.; Han, Z.; Zhu, J.; Zhou, H.; Huang, F.; Li, C.; Lu, H.; Li, N.; Li, D.; Jin, N.; Penninger, J.M.; Jiang, C. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 protects from lethal avian influenza A H5N1 infections. Nat. Commun., 2014, 5(1), 3594.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ncomms4594] [PMID: 24800825]
[86]
Lei, C.; Qian, K.; Li, T.; Zhang, S.; Fu, W.; Ding, M.; Hu, S. Neutralization of SARS-CoV-2 spike pseudotyped virus by recombinant ACE2-Ig. Nat. Commun., 2020, 11(1), 2070.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-16048-4] [PMID: 32332765]
[87]
Gautret, P.; Lagier, J.C.; Parola, P.; Hoang, V.T.; Meddeb, L.; Mailhe, M.; Doudier, B.; Courjon, J.; Giordanengo, V.; Vieira, V.E.; Tissot Dupont, H.; Honoré, S.; Colson, P.; Chabrière, E.; La Scola, B.; Rolain, J.M.; Brouqui, P.; Raoult, D. Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin as a treatment of COVID-19: results of an open-label non-randomized clinical trial. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents, 2020, 56(1) ,105949
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2020.105949] [PMID: 32205204]
[88]
Iwata-Yoshikawa, N.; Okamura, T.; Shimizu, Y.; Hasegawa, H.; Takeda, M.; Nagata, N. TMPRSS2 contributes to virus spread and immunopathology in the airways of murine models after coronavirus infection. J. Virol., 2019, 93(6), e01815-18.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01815-18] [PMID: 30626688]
[89]
Böttcher, E.; Matrosovich, T.; Beyerle, M.; Klenk, H.D.; Garten, W.; Matrosovich, M. Proteolytic activation of influenza viruses by serine proteases TMPRSS2 and HAT from human airway epithelium. J. Virol., 2006, 80(19), 9896-9898.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01118-06] [PMID: 16973594]
[90]
Stopsack, K.H.; Mucci, L.A.; Antonarakis, E.S.; Nelson, P.S.; Kantoff, P.W. TMPRSS2 and COVID-19: Serendipity or Opportunity for Intervention? Cancer Discov., 2020, 10(6), 779-782.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1158/2159-8290.CD-20-0451] [PMID: 32276929]
[91]
Hatesuer, B.; Bertram, S.; Mehnert, N.; Bahgat, M.M.; Nelson, P.S.; Pöhlmann, S.; Schughart, K. Tmprss2 is essential for influenza H1N1 virus pathogenesis in mice. PLoS Pathog., 2013, 9(12) ,e1003774
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1003774] [PMID: 24348248]
[92]
Mikkonen, L.; Pihlajamaa, P.; Sahu, B.; Zhang, F.P.; Jänne, O.A. Androgen receptor and androgen-dependent gene expression in lung. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol., 2010, 317(1-2), 14-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2009.12.022] [PMID: 20035825]
[93]
Montopoli, M.; Zumerle, S.; Vettor, R.; Rugge, M.; Zorzi, M.; Catapano, C.V.; Carbone, G.M.; Cavalli, A.; Pagano, F.; Ragazzi, E.; Prayer-Galetti, T.; Alimonti, A. Androgen-deprivation therapies for prostate cancer and risk of infection by SARS-CoV-2: a population-based study (N = 4532). Ann. Oncol., 2020, 31(8), 1040-1045.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.annonc.2020.04.479] [PMID: 32387456]
[94]
Suba, Z. Prevention and therapy of COVID-19 via exogenous estrogen treatment for both male and female patients. J. Pharm. Pharm. Sci., 2020, 23(1), 75-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.18433/jpps31069] [PMID: 32324533]
[95]
Suba, Z. DNA stabilization by the upregulation of estrogen signaling in BRCA gene mutation carriers. Drug Des. Devel. Ther., 2015, 9, 2663-2675.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/DDDT.S84437] [PMID: 26028963]
[96]
Zhu, F-C.; Li, Y.H.; Guan, X.H.; Hou, L.H.; Wang, W.J.; Li, J.X.; Wu, S.P.; Wang, B.S.; Wang, Z.; Wang, L.; Jia, S.Y.; Jiang, H.D.; Wang, L.; Jiang, T.; Hu, Y.; Gou, J.B.; Xu, S.B.; Xu, J.J.; Wang, X.W.; Wang, W.; Chen, W. Safety, tolerability, and immunogenicity of a recombinant adenovirus type-5 vectored COVID-19 vaccine: a dose-escalation, open-label, non-randomised, first-in-human trial. Lancet, 2020, 395(10240), 1845-1854.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31208-3] [PMID: 32450106]
[97]
van Doremalen, N.; Lambe, T.; Spencer, A.; Belij-Rammerstorfer, S.; Purushotham, J.N.; Port, J.R.; Avanzato, V.; Bushmaker, T.; Flaxman, A.; Ulaszewska, M.; Feldmann, F.; Allen, E.R.; Sharpe, H.; Schulz, J.; Holbrook, M.; Okumura, A.; Meade-White, K.; Pérez-Pérez, L.; Bissett, C.; Gilbride, C.; Williamson, B.N.; Rosenke, R.; Long, D.; Ishwarbhai, A.; Kailath, R.; Rose, L.; Morris, S.; Powers, C.; Lovaglio, J.; Hanley, P.W.; Scott, D.; Saturday, G.; de Wit, E.; Gilbert, S.C.; Munster, V.J. ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccination prevents SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia in rhesus macaques. bioRxiv, 2020, 2020.05.13.093195.
[PMID: 32511340]
[98]
Cassese, E.C.; Farhart, C.E.; Miller, J.M. Gender differences in COVID-19 conspiracy theory beliefs. Polit. Gend., 2020, 1-12.
[99]
Surveillances, V. The epidemiological characteristics of an outbreak of 2019 novel coronavirus diseases (COVID-19)—China, 2020. China CDC Weekly, 2020, 2(8), 113-122.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.46234/ccdcw2020.032]
[100]
National Committee on COVID-19 Epidemiology, Ministry of Health and Medical Education, IR Iran Daily Situation Report on Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) in Iran; March 22, 2020. Arch Acad Emerg Med, 2020, 8(1), e32..
[PMID: 32259124]
[101]
Chu, C.M.; Cheng, V.C.; Hung, I.F.; Wong, M.M.; Chan, K.H.; Chan, K.S.; Kao, R.Y.; Poon, L.L.; Wong, C.L.; Guan, Y.; Peiris, J.S.; Yuen, K.Y. Role of lopinavir/ritonavir in the treatment of SARS: initial virological and clinical findings. Thorax, 2004, 59(3), 252-256.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/thorax.2003.012658] [PMID: 14985565]
[102]
Rismanbaf, A. Potential treatments for COVID-19; A narrative literature review. Arch Acad Emerg Med, 2020, 8(1) ,e29
[PMID: 32232214]
[103]
Xu, K. Management of corona virus disease-19 (COVID-19): The zhejiang experience. J. Zhejiang Uni.(Medical Science),, 2020, 49(1), 147-157.

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
25
1
Wayfinder Image
Open Access Journals Promotions
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy