Myconanotechnology: Green Chemistry for Sustainable Development

Nanotechnology is one of the most fascinating areas of research, it is the cutting-edge technology that has a great impact on various application fields. Nanoparticles have been under consideration due to their applicability in almost every field. There are many methods used for the synthesis of nanoparticles but biological methods have proved to be superior. Among various biological sources, microorganisms have gained attention recently. Bacterial nanoparticle syntheses from terrestrial as well as from marine habitats have been frequently studied as compared to fungal counterparts. Recently, Fungal Nanotechnology has received much attention as it has a big role to play in future as well. During the last decades, marine fungi have been observed to exhibit novel nanotechnological application potentialities. This chapter deals with the history and emergence of myconanotechnology, focusing on terrestrial as well as marine fungal resources. Fungal nanoproducts have noteworthy scope in diverse fields. This chapter also discusses the scope of myconanotechnology in future. 

Nanotechnology is the science of research and development at the nanoscale (i.e. 10-9 m) at least in one dimension. The capability of nanotechnology is often known to revolve around nanoparticles. The core versatility of the nanoparticles is the fact that they exhibit more significant properties than that of bulk counterparts. Nanobionics is the structural and functional study of biological systems which serve as a model for the design and engineering of materials and machines at the cistron level. Fungi have emerged as important systems for the synthesis of nanoparticles due to the production of extracellular enzymes which can utilize heavy metal ions and produce nanoparticles, easy to isolate and subculture on synthetic media due to low nutritional requirements, high wall binding capacity, simpler biomass handling and extracellular synthesis of nanoparticle help in easy downstream processing. Fungi can produce nanoparticles both extracellularly as well as intracellularly. For example, the synthesis of silver nanoparticles has been reported utilizing many ubiquitous fungal species including Trichoderma, Fusarium, Penicillium, Rhizoctonia, Pleurotus and Aspergillus.Extracellular synthesis has been shown by Trichoderma viridae while intracellular synthesis was shown to occur in a Verticillium species, and in Neurospora crassa whereas the synthesis of gold nanoparticles has been reported utilizing Fusarium, Neurospora, Verticillium, yeasts, and Aspergillus. In this chapter, we further focus on the applications of fungal nanobionics in various industries

Era of nanotechnology has played a significant role in various aspects of our life. These are minute particles having vast roles. Numerous techniques have been employed for its synthesis. Previously chemical and physical approaches were exploited for their synthesis but nowadays researchers are leaning on biological entities for their creation. And this terminology is green chemistry which does not harm the environment. Mycogenesis plays a terrific role in producing nanoparticles as they contain various enzymes and proteins playing a role in reducing the metal nanoparticles. Metal nanoparticles such as silver nanoparticles act as an efficient biocontrol agent. They were explored to control different types of pests, pathogens, microbes, etc. Different mechanisms were used for controlling the pathogens. They are effective due to broad-spectrum efficiency and ruin the cells by binding with phosphorus and sulphur present in the structure of protein and DNA. They are toxic to a wide range of microorganisms. This chapter focuses on the synthesis of silver nanoparticles using different fungal agents and the processes involved. Further, how the prepared particles have prospective application in the control of living organisms, description of all the pathogens against which silver nanoparticles were effective has been provided. This review will comprehensively provide some knowledge regarding the biocontrol application of myconanotechnology. 

The development in nanotechnology, specifically the nanoparticulate system, has a great impact on medicine, engineering and other scientific areas. Inorganic nanoparticles such as silver, gold, zinc oxide, selenium, iron, lead, platinum and copper, etc. were found to exhibit antimicrobial, antioxidant and other biological activities, used as biosensors and also used in different fields of engineering. In the 21st century, microorganisms and plant parts are playing a major role in the synthesis of inorganic nanoparticles. Green synthesis of inorganic nanoparticles becomes preferable to other approaches because of its eco-friendly and non-toxic approach. Additionally, the active molecules of plants (Tannins, flavonoids, terpenoids, saponins, proteins and glycosides) which act as capping and reducing agents in the synthesis of metal nanoparticles could make them most suitable for biomedical applications. This green approach fascinated researchers across the globe to explore the potential of different microorganisms and plants in the synthesis of inorganic nanoparticles. Selenium nanoparticles are one of the inorganic nanoparticles which are widely used in the area of medicine and engineering. In this chapter, we discussed the green synthesis using microorganism and Agri based products, characterisation and various applications of selenium nanoparticles.

Nanotechnology involves the synthesis of nanoparticles (NPs) and paved the way for the possibility of applications in different fields such as pharmaceutical science, industry, environment and biosensor technology. The metal nanoparticles synthesis using fungal extract is gaining momentum due to their novel chemical, optical, electrical, and magnetic properties. The mycelial biomass is found to be more resistant against pH, temperature, agitation and pressure compared to bacterial and plant extract and thus more appropriate for industrial production. The nano-sized particles synthesized by green chemistry are of better quality than the ones made by chemical reduction methods such as laser ablation, metallic wire explosion, photochemical or radiation reduction and sonochemical method. The chemical methods can pose a risk to environmental and animal health due to release of the hazardous toxic component. Therefore, nanoparticles synthesis using fungal extract could be an ecofriendly alternative to chemical-based methods as green synthesis has the lesser possibility of such component release. The fungal extract comprises a plethora of secreted extracellular proteins, enzymes, vitamins and ions which are responsible for the reduction and stability of nano-size metallic particles. The biogenic nanoparticles thus produced have attained much interest due to their composition, shape and size, photochemical, optical and chemical properties. The nanomaterials have applications in various fields such as biosensor technology, DNA based techniques, metabolomics, antimicrobial agents, cancer cell treatment, protein engineering, purification of water and degradation of pesticides, synthetic biology, downstream processing and delivery of therapeutic compounds. 

Nanoscience has opened new vistas to manage phytopathogens, improve crop productivity by the development of new varieties, and control infectious diseases in humans. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are highly acclaimed for their wide potential application in various fields. Chemical and physical methods of synthesis of AgNPs and AuNPs are widely used; however, such methods possess numerous setbacks, such as the production of toxic residues and indispensable need for high energy. Biosynthesis of nanoparticles is a cost-effective and environmentally friendly method. A plethora of species of plant, bacteria, fungi, etc. is available with potential biosynthesis ability. Fungi are a highly preferred organism owing to the ability to secrete a large number of extracellular enzymes, metal toxicity tolerance and bioaccumulation ability, and ease of handling of its biomass. Extracellular enzymes act both as reducing as well as capping agents. Two different methods are used by fungi for synthesis viz., intercellular and extracellular synthesis. Extracellular synthesis is preferred over intercellular as it bypasses several down streaming processes. During the reduction process, the metal ions (Ag2+ and Au3+) are converted to an elemental state (Ag0 and Au0 ) which is in the nano range. Due to their large surface-to-volume ratio and other properties, they become very effective against other pathogens. There is an excellent prospect of the use of nanoparticles in the field of agriculture and health and nanoparticles synthesized using a biological method involving fungi could be a boon. 

The main sources of soil contamination are anthropogenic activities, which result in the accumulation of contaminants that can reach levels considered toxic. One of the main soils contaminants these days is heavy metals. These metals are bioaccumulative and are not biodegradable, so many of them are toxic when they exceed certain limits. Heavy metals, when accumulated in the tissues of plants, animals and humans, induce severe symptoms that can even cause death. Bioremediation is a widely used technology to decrease the levels of these metals in soils and waters using microorganisms, among which fungi stand out. Nanotechnology currently applies the bases of bioremediation using fungi at the nanoparticle level to treat soils contaminated with heavy metals. This chapter will discuss novel aspects related to heavy metals in modern agriculture, bioremediation and nanotechnology using fungi with bioremediation purposes.

With the enormous increase in global population, there is an increasing number of individuals to feed. Crop loss has become the biggest issue worldwide. Insects (14%), weeds (13%) and various plant diseases (13%) play a very important role in crop losses. The loss caused by plant diseases single-handedly causes an estimated loss of 2 trillion dollars per year. Due to the increasing demand of food, the use of synthetic chemicals has become today’s fastest, easiest and cheapest way to control loss causing agents. But due to the immense use of these chemicals, it induces adverse effect on the environment, human beings, animals and also depleting natural resources. In the current scenario, there is a need to introduce control measures which are effective and increase crop production but on the other hand, they must be less harmful for the ecosystem. After the introduction of irrational use of fungicides, there is always a posed threat to the living system, killing not only the target fungi but also affecting beneficial living systems. Besides, there is an increase in resistance against fungicides in the fungal pathogen. It is becoming necessary to reassess our strategies and achieve disease management by alternate approaches such as nanotechnology. Nanofungicides based on metals like silver (Ag), copper (Cu), etc. and nano-emulsion has been becoming an important technology to tackle fungal pathogen problems in agriculture, having immense potential to cope with the fungal pathogen in the future. However, very little work has been done to bring this technology to field level. Nanotechnology has substantially advanced in medicine and pharmacology, but has received comparatively less interest for agricultural applications. They aim at acting directly into the plant’s part where the pest or disease attacks, which means that only the required amount of chemical is delivered to the plant tissue as medication. Nanoparticles may act upon pathogens in a way similar to chemical pesticides or the nanomaterials can be used as a carrier of active ingredients of pesticides, host defense inducing chemicals, etc., to the target pathogens. It is a more appropriate and suitable solution for crop protection and is also safer for the environment. It will improve agricultural output in the coming years by solving the above-mentioned problems in crop production therefore, extensive research work is needed. Nanotechnology  may bring an evolution in industry as well as in the field of dealing with fungal pathogens.

Nanoparticulate (NP) substances have widely documented antimicrobial properties, yet their utilisation in the biocides and pesticides industries has yet to be fully exploited. This is particularly so in the pesticides industry, where their potential has not yet been realised. This mini review identifies the emerging trends identified in research characterising the in vitro antimicrobial properties of NP substances against fungal and oomycete phytopathogens. Nanoparticulate substances for which there was a sufficient depth of published studies on activity against fungal and oomycete phytopathogens are covered in this review, these include chitosan, copper, magnesium, silver and zinc. All substances displayed significant activity against a range of phytopathogens, though silver and copper-based NPs appear to be the most potent at relativity low (<50 ppm) concentrations. However, as particle size and shape affect the level of exhibited toxicity, direct comparisons of activity between studies are often difficult due to the different types of NP examined. One particularly promising NP substance is the organic biodegradable substance chitosan which is considered environmentally friendly. Chitosan has also been shown to stimulate plant growth and defence in addition to possessing antifungal activity. The lack of toxicological properties marks chitosan as having particular potential for fulfilling the regulatory requirements for environmental fate and ecotoxicology necessary for gaining approval as an authorised pesticide. Another distinct problem in comparing studies is the lack of a recognised standardised growth medium/media for determining nanomaterial toxicity. A growing body of evidence suggests that the in vitro toxicity of certain nanoparticles is highly influenced by the properties of the growth medium, such as its pH, salinity and components. These confounding factors will be discussed and their implications for comparing nanomaterial efficacy highlighted while also providing suggestions for improving characterisation of nanomaterial efficacy. Characterisation of nanomaterial efficacy in vitro is a critical step in determining which nanomaterials should be progressed for further testing in higher tier tests such as simulated use trials and field trials. The aim of this chapter is to draw attention to the limitations of in vitro characterisation and highlight how these techniques can be improved.

Nanotechnology is the science of manipulating atoms and molecules in the nanoscale - 80,000 times smaller than the width of a human hair. Nanotechnology is a revolutionary technology that is being used in many fields all over the world as it finds applications in automobiles, electronics, material science, etc. Fungal nanotechnology has great prospects for developing new products with industrial, agricultural, medicinal, and consumer applications in a wide range of areas. Nanotechnology has applications in the field of cosmetics, which are known as nanocosmetics. Various types of nanomaterials are employed in cosmetic and medical applications i.e. inorganic nanoparticles, Silica (SiO2 ), Carbon Black, Nano-Organic materials, NanoHydroxyapatite, Gold, and Silver Nanoparticles, Nanoliposomes, etc. NPs have been explored and identified as carriers for drug delivery. New drug delivery systems based on nanotechnology have been applied in the treatment of human diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, microbial infections, and gene therapy. The benefits of these treatments are that the drug is targeted to diseased cells, and its safety profile is enhanced by the reduced toxic side effects to normal cells. In general, NPs can be conjugated with different types of drugs to deliver bioactive compounds to the target site by various methods, such as the use of nanotubes, liposomes, quantum dots, nanopores, and dendrimers. It is employed in fuel cell applications that involve polymers in the proton exchange membrane, binder for the electrodes, and matrix for bipolar plates.

Mycotoxins are poisonous compounds that are produced by toxigenic fungi as secondary metabolites. Their production can occur at any stage of food and feed supply, including harvesting, storage, processing and distribution, contaminating a plethora of foodstuffs. As mycotoxins exert their toxic properties at a very low level, usually at μg/kg level, their early and fast detection in food materials is necessary. The early detection of mycotoxins and fungi contamination could pose the elimination or reduction of possible threats associated with the consumption of mycotoxincontaminated food. Contamination of food with mycotoxins can be prevented by monitoring and control at various critical stages of the food chain at the pre-and postharvest stage. Given the widespread use and rapid development of nanotechnology in a variety of fields, it is considered that the application of many nanomaterials in the detection of mycotoxins will be a pioneering strategy. Except for conventional methods, such as gas chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry or other detectors, various nanotechnological approaches are used for the detection of fungi and mycotoxins. Nanobiosensors, nanoparticles, nanowires, nanorods, and nanodiagnostic kits are used for the rapid detection of mycotoxin in food analysis. In addition, the electronic nose and electronic tongue are highly helpful in detecting a variety of mycotoxins and mycotoxinproducing fungi in food and feed. The main purpose of this chapter is to describe the role of nanobiotechnology and nanomaterials in the detection of fungi and mycotoxins in food and animal feed. 

Virulent fungal plant pathogens are a serious threat to crop productivity and are considered a major limitation to food security worldwide. To meet these challenges, pathogen detection is crucial for taking appropriate measures to curb yield losses. Disease diagnosis at an early stage is one of the best strategies for crop protection. Earlier, traditional methods were used to diagnose and manage fungal diseases, which included visual scouting of the disease symptoms and spray of fungicides. The utility of immunoassays for early detection and precise identity has been appreciably stepped forward following the improvement of enzyme-connected immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and monoclonal antibodies. Nucleic acid-based diagnostic techniques have turnout to be the preferred type because of their greater speed, specificity, sensitivity, reliability, and reproducibility. The biosensor eliminates the need of sample preparation and can be used for on-site detection of fungal pathogens at latent infection stages so that preventive measures can be taken. Currently, multiple human and animal diseases have been detected with the help of biosensors. However, reports on plant pathogen detection using biosensors are still in infancy. Despite many applications of antibodies, there are also multiple drawbacks, including high cost, low physical and chemical stability, and the ethical issues associated with their use. Now, DNA based biosensors are gaining popularity because of their sensitive and precise detection of DNA target sequences. Immunological and DNA-based techniques combined with nanotechnology offer highly sensitive and selective gel-free detection methods, and the lab-on-chip (LOC) feature of biosensors makes them a very reliable tool in crop protection. 

Wood properties can be changed using nanomaterials that can penetrate deeply into the wood substrate. This capacity of nano-based materials can be utilized in changing wood properties in a way that is very effective in their long-term use. Nanotechnology can certainly change the future of the wood industry by increasing the functional life of wood products as well as usability under various conditions. But its full potential to make wood resistant against fungi has still not been explored. Research is underway but there is still a long way to go. Studies carried out on the use of nanoparticles have clearly shown the negative impact of nanoparticles on human health as well as on the environment. This issue needs to be addressed.

 Demand for food, fibre and medicines has been boosted tremendously for the explosive population, which has certainly built pressure on the agriculture-based sector to meet the requirements by various means. Nano-fungicides are fungicidal formulation that contains fungicide particle size 10−9. These nano-fungicides contain antimicrobial properties, which could be utilized against plant pathogens such as fungi and bacteria as a potent pesticide. Nanoparticles of fungicidal properties can be synthesized using different metals via. copper, silver, etc. Recent reports suggest that nanoparticles can also be synthesized using biological means such as fungi which pose effective fungicidal actions. Nanopesticides have their application in various areas such as agriculture, food, medical industries, storage packaging of food, etc. The present chapter will light upon the types and methods of nanoparticle synthesis and their applications. Categories of nano pesticides based on their nature application and source of synthesis will also be covered. Inventions in nano pesticides could lead us to less dependence upon conventional chemical pesticides which have adverse effects on climate, animal and human health. 

The demand of fuels as a source of energy for various operations is increasing daily. This has led to increased demand of fossil fuels, particularly by transportation and industrial sectors. There are multiple problems related to conventional fossil fuels like firstly, they are non-renewable resources with limited reserves. Secondly, fossil fuels pose serious environmental and health issues. Fossil fuels are one of the leading sources of emission of atmospheric greenhouse gases (GHG), resulting in global warming and thus climate change. These limitations and adverse effects of the use of fossil fuels have warranted scientists and policymakers to look for renewable and greener alternatives such as biofuels. Based on the type of feedstock used, biofuels are classified as first-generation, second-generation and thirdgeneration. First-generation biofuels are based on edible resources which are already scanty. This has led to increased interest in second and third-generation biofuels. The agricultural waste and inedible crops constituting lignocellulosic materials are important second-generation biofuel feedstocks. The second-generation feedstocks can be a great alternative to conventional fossil fuels, but there are a few limitations, such as the cost and efficiency of production. Currently, scientists are looking at the role of fungi and utilization of various fungal enzymes in the hydrolysis of the lignocellulosic substrates for efficient and cost-effective production of biofuels. Nanomaterials have the ability for the better utilization of enzymes, biofuels, biodiesels and other microbial fuels. Therefore, nanotechnology can be utilized to address the challenges through various mechanisms and processes. This chapter is an attempt to focus on the role of fungi and fungal enzymes for better utilization of feedstock and sustainable production of renewable, cost-effective, environment-friendly biofuels.