Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Current Medical Imaging

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1573-4056
ISSN (Online): 1875-6603

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Mini-Review Article

Brain Tumor Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis and Radiotherapy Treatment

Author(s): Haarika Raghavapudi, Pankaj Singroul and V. Kohila *

Volume 17, Issue 8, 2021

Published on: 26 January, 2021

Page: [931 - 942] Pages: 12

DOI: 10.2174/1573405617666210126160206

Price: $65

conference banner
Abstract

The strategy used for the treatment of given brain cancer is critical in determining the post effects and survival. An oncological diagnosis of tumor evaluates a range of parameters such as shape, size, volume, location and neurological complexity that define the symptomatic severity. The evaluation determines a suitable treatment approach chosen from a range of options such as surgery, chemotherapy, hormone therapy, radiation therapy and other targeted therapies. Often, a combination of such therapies is applied to achieve superior results. Radiotherapy serves as a better treatment strategy because of a higher survival rate. It offers the flexibility of synergy with other treatment strategies and fewer side effects on organs at risk. This review presents a radiobiological perspective in the treatment of brain tumor. The cause, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, post-treatment effects and the framework involved in its elimination are summarized.

Keywords: Radiation therapy, brain cancer, treatment options, ionizing radiation therapy, post-radiation effects, carbon-ion therapy.

Graphical Abstract

[1]
Boring E, Murphy G. An historical introduction to modern psychology. Am J Psychol 1930; 42(1): 156.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1414440]
[2]
van den Tweel JG, Taylor CR. A brief history of pathology: Preface to a forthcoming series that highlights milestones in the evolution of pathology as a discipline. Virchows Arch 2010; 457(1): 3-10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00428-010-0934-4] [PMID: 20499087]
[3]
Mitrus I, Bryndza E, Sochanik A, Szala S. Evolving models of tumor origin and progression. Tumor Biol 2012; 33(4): 911-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13277-012-0389-0] [PMID: 22492238]
[4]
Hamilton S. Pathology and genetics of tumors of the digestive system. Lyon: IARC Press 2006.
[5]
Ostrom Q, Gittleman H, Truitt G, Boscia A, Kruchko C, Barnholtz-Sloan J. CBTRUS statistical report: primary brain and other central nervous system tumors diagnosed in the United States in 2011–2015. Neuro-Oncology 2018; 20(Suppl. 4): iv1-iv86.
[6]
Thariat J, Hannoun-Levi JM, Sun Myint A, Vuong T, Gérard JP. Past, present, and future of radiotherapy for the benefit of patients. Nat Rev Clin Oncol 2013; 10(1): 52-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrclinonc.2012.203] [PMID: 23183635]
[7]
Hoskin PJ, Bownes P. Innovative technologies in radiation therapy: brachytherapy. Semin Radiat Oncol 2006; 16(4): 209-17.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.semradonc.2006.04.003] [PMID: 17010903]
[8]
Formenti SC, Demaria S. Systemic effects of local radiotherapy. Lancet Oncol 2009; 10(7): 718-26.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(09)70082-8] [PMID: 19573801]
[9]
Jermann M. Particle therapy statistics in 2014. Int J Part Ther 2015; 2(1): 50-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.14338/IJPT-15-00013]
[10]
Ebner DK, Kamada T. The emerging role of carbon-ion radiotherapy. Front Oncol 2016; 6: 140.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2016.00140] [PMID: 27376030]
[11]
R. Castro J. Heavy ion therapy. Berkeley, Calif.: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory 1993.
[12]
Durante M, Paganetti H. Nuclear physics in particle therapy: a review. Rep Prog Phys 2016; 79(9): 096702.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0034-4885/79/9/096702] [PMID: 27540827]
[13]
Baumann M, Krause M, Overgaard J, et al. Radiation oncology in the era of precision medicine. Nat Rev Cancer 2016; 16(4): 234-49.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrc.2016.18] [PMID: 27009394]
[14]
Durante M, Loeffler JS. Charged particles in radiation oncology. Nat Rev Clin Oncol 2010; 7(1): 37-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrclinonc.2009.183] [PMID: 19949433]
[15]
Combs SE, Bohl J, Elsässer T, et al. Radiobiological evaluation and correlation with the local effect model (LEM) of carbon ion radiation therapy and temozolomide in glioblastoma cell lines. Int J Radiat Biol 2009; 85(2): 126-37.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09553000802641151] [PMID: 19280465]
[16]
Kwa SL, Lebesque JV, Theuws JC, et al. Radiation pneumonitis as a function of mean lung dose: an analysis of pooled data of 540 patients. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1998; 42(1): 1-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0360-3016(98)00196-5] [PMID: 9747813]
[17]
Massingill B. Prediction of proton and neutron absorbed-dose distributions in proton beam radiation therapy using monte carlo N- particle transport code [MCNPX]. College Station, Tex: Texas A & M University 2010.
[18]
Lievens Y, Pijls-Johannesma M. Health economic controversy and cost-effectiveness of proton therapy. Semin Radiat Oncol 2013; 23(2): 134-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.semradonc.2012.11.005] [PMID: 23473691]
[19]
Paganetti H, Zietman A. Why is proton beam therapy so controversial? J Am Coll Radiol 2015; 12(12 Pt A): 1318-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacr.2015.09.019] [PMID: 26653836]
[20]
National Cancer Institute. Genetics. 2019. https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/genetics
[21]
Reilly KM. Brain tumor susceptibility: the role of genetic factors and uses of mouse models to unravel risk. Brain Pathol 2009; 19(1): 121-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-3639.2008.00236.x] [PMID: 19076777]
[22]
Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky SL, et al. Molecular Cell Biology. 4th ed. New York: W. H. Freeman 2000.
[23]
Blumenthal DT, Cannon-Albright LA. Familiality in brain tumor. Neurology 2008; 71(13): 1015-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000326597.60605.27] [PMID: 18809838]
[24]
Farrell CJ, Plotkin SR. Genetic causes of brain tumor: neurofibromatosis, tuberous sclerosis, von Hippel-Lindau, and other syndromes. Neurol Clin 2007; 25(4): 925-946, viii.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ncl.2007.07.008] [PMID: 17964021]
[25]
Tamimi A, Juweid M. Epidemiology and outcome of glioblastoma. Glioblastoma 2017; pp. 143-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.15586/codon.glioblastoma.2017.ch8]
[26]
Carpenter DO, Bushkin-Bedient S. Exposure to chemicals and radiation during childhood and risk for cancer later in life. J Adolesc Health 2013; 52(Suppl. 5): S21-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.01.027] [PMID: 23601608]
[27]
Neta G, Stewart PA, Rajaraman P, et al. Occupational exposure to chlorinated solvents and risks of glioma and meningioma in adults. Occup Environ Med 2012; 69(11): 793-801.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2012-100742] [PMID: 22864249]
[28]
International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs evaluate consumption of red meat and processed meat 2015.
[29]
Caffo M, Caruso G, Fata GL, et al. Heavy metals and epigenetic alterations in brain tumor. Curr Genomics 2014; 15(6): 457-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/138920291506150106151847] [PMID: 25646073]
[30]
de la Monte SM, Neusner A, Chu J, Lawton M. Epidemilogical trends strongly suggest exposures as etiologic agents in the pathogenesis of sporadic Alzheimer’s disease, diabetes mellitus, and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. J Alzheimers Dis 2009; 17(3): 519-29.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/JAD-2009-1070] [PMID: 19363256]
[31]
Wrensch M, Minn Y, Chew T, Bondy M, Berger MS. Epidemiology of primary brain tumor: current concepts and review of the literature. Neuro-oncology 2002; 4(4): 278-99.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/4.4.278] [PMID: 12356358]
[32]
Akhtar S, Vranic S, Cyprian FS, Al Moustafa AE. Epstein–Barr virus in Gliomas: cause, association, or artifact? Front Oncol 2018; 8: 123.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2018.00123] [PMID: 29732319]
[33]
Delecluse HJ, Feederle R, O’Sullivan B, Taniere P. Epstein Barr virus-associated tumors: an update for the attention of the working pathologist. J Clin Pathol 2007; 60(12): 1358-64.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jcp.2006.044586] [PMID: 17873116]
[34]
Tyagi V, Theobald J, Barger J, et al. Traumatic brain injury and subsequent glioblastoma development: Review of the literature and case reports. Surg Neurol Int 2016; 7(1): 78.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2152-7806.189296] [PMID: 27625888]
[35]
Amirian ES, Scheurer ME, Zhou R, et al. History of chickenpox in glioma risk: a report from the glioma international case-control study (GICC). Cancer Med 2016; 5(6): 1352-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cam4.682] [PMID: 26972449]
[36]
Braganza MZ, Kitahara CM, Berrington de González A, Inskip PD, Johnson KJ, Rajaraman P. Ionizing radiation and the risk of brain and central nervous system tumor: a systematic review. Neuro-oncol 2012; 14(11): 1316-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/nos208] [PMID: 22952197]
[37]
Institute of Medicine [US] Committee on Cancer Control in Low- and Middle-Income Countries; Sloan FA, Gelband H, editors Cancer control opportunities in low- and middle-income countries 2007.
[38]
Bondy ML, Scheurer ME, Malmer B, et al. Brain Tumor Epidemiology Consortium. Brain tumor epidemiology: consensus from the Brain Tumor Epidemiology Consortium. Cancer 2008; 113(7)(Suppl.): 1953-68.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cncr.23741] [PMID: 18798534]
[39]
Vijayalaxmi SM, Scarfi MR. International and national expert group evaluations: biological/health effects of radiofrequency fields. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2014; 11(9): 9376-408.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110909376] [PMID: 25211777]
[40]
Hardell L. World Health Organization, radiofrequency radiation and health - a hard nut to crack (Review). Int J Oncol 2017; 51(2): 405-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3892/ijo.2017.4046] [PMID: 28656257]
[41]
Clapp RW, Jacobs MM, Loechler EL. Environmental and occupational causes of cancer: new evidence 2005-2007. Rev Environ Health 2008; 23(1): 1-37.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/REVEH.2008.23.1.1] [PMID: 18557596]
[42]
Liu R, Page M, Solheim K, Fox S, Chang SM. Quality of life in adults with brain tumor: current knowledge and future directions. Neuro Oncol 2009; 11(3): 330-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/15228517-2008-093] [PMID: 19001097]
[43]
Wong J, Hird A, Kirou-Mauro A, Napolskikh J, Chow E. Quality of life in brain metastases radiation trials: a literature review. Curr Oncol 2008; 15(5): 25-45.
[PMID: 19008990]
[44]
Committee on the analysis of cancer risks in populations near nuclear facilities-Phase I; Nuclear and Radiation Studies Board; Division on Earth and Life Studies; National Research Council Analysis of cancer risks in populations near nuclear facilities: 2012.
[45]
Ahn YO, Li ZM. KREEC Study Group. Cancer risk in adult residents near nuclear power plants in Korea - a cohort study of 1992-2010. J Korean Med Sci 2012; 27(9): 999-1008.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3346/jkms.2012.27.9.999] [PMID: 22969244]
[46]
Högberg L. Root causes and impacts of severe accidents at large nuclear power plants. Ambio 2013; 42(3): 267-84.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13280-013-0382-x] [PMID: 23423737]
[47]
Madame Curie Bioscience Database 2000.
[48]
Jin X, Mu P. Targeting breast cancer metastasis. Breast Cancer (Auckl) 2015; 9(Suppl. 1): 23-34.
[PMID: 26380552]
[49]
Fabi A, Felici A, Metro G, et al. Brain metastases from solid tumor: disease outcome according to type of treatment and therapeutic resources of the treating center. J Exp Clin Cancer Res 2011; 30: 10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1756-9966-30-10] [PMID: 21244695]
[50]
Nieder C, Mehta MP, Geinitz H, Grosu AL. Prognostic and predictive factors in patients with brain metastases from solid tumor: A review of published nomograms. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2018; 126: 13-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.critrevonc.2018.03.018] [PMID: 29759555]
[51]
Owonikoko TK, Arbiser J, Zelnak A, et al. Current approaches to the treatment of metastatic brain tumors. Nat Rev Clin Oncol 2014; 11(4): 203-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrclinonc.2014.25] [PMID: 24569448]
[52]
Hardesty DA, Nakaji P. The current and future treatment of brain metastases. Front Surg 2016; 3: 30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fsurg.2016.00030] [PMID: 27252942]
[53]
Schouten LJ, Rutten J, Huveneers HA, Twijnstra A. Incidence of brain metastases in a cohort of patients with carcinoma of the breast, colon, kidney, and lung and melanoma. Cancer 2002; 94(10): 2698-705.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cncr.10541] [PMID: 12173339]
[54]
Barnholtz-Sloan JS, Sloan AE, Davis FG, Vigneau FD, Lai P, Sawaya RE. Incidence proportions of brain metastases in patients diagnosed (1973 to 2001) in the Metropolitan Detroit Cancer Surveillance System. J Clin Oncol 2004; 22(14): 2865-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2004.12.149] [PMID: 15254054]
[55]
Sizoo EM, Braam L, Postma TJ, et al. Symptoms and problems in the end-of-life phase of high-grade glioma patients. Neuro Oncol 2010; 12(11): 1162-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/nop045] [PMID: 20511193]
[56]
Wilne SH, Ferris RC, Nathwani A, Kennedy CR. The presenting features of brain tumors: a review of 200 cases. Arch Dis Child 2006; 91(6): 502-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/adc.2005.090266] [PMID: 16547083]
[57]
Madhusoodanan S, Ting MB, Farah T, Ugur U. Psychiatric aspects of brain tumor: A review. World J Psychiatry 2015; 5(3): 273-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5498/wjp.v5.i3.273] [PMID: 26425442]
[58]
Triebel KL, Martin RC, Nabors LB, Marson DC. Medical decision-making capacity in patients with malignant glioma. Neurology 2009; 73(24): 2086-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181c67bce] [PMID: 20018637]
[59]
Rees JH. Diagnosis and treatment in neuro-oncology: an oncological perspective. Br J Radiol 2011; 84(Spec No 2): S82-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1259/bjr/18061999] [PMID: 22433832]
[60]
Maschio M. Brain tumor-related epilepsy. Curr Neuropharmacol 2012; 10(2): 124-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/157015912800604470] [PMID: 23204982]
[61]
Veretennikoff K, Walker D, Biggs V, Robinson G. Changes in cognition and decision-making capacity following brain tumor resection: illustrated with two cases. Brain Sci 2017; 7(10): 122.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci7100122] [PMID: 28946652]
[62]
Campanella F, Fabbro F, Ius T, Shallice T, Skrap M. Acute effects of surgery on emotion and personality of brain tumor patients: surgery impact, histological aspects, and recovery. Neuro-oncol 2015; 17(8): 1121-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/neuonc/nov065] [PMID: 25921022]
[63]
Boele FW, Rooney AG, Grant R, Klein M. Psychiatric symptoms in glioma patients: from diagnosis to management. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2015; 11: 1413-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S65874] [PMID: 26089669]
[64]
Cavers D, Hacking B, Erridge SE, Kendall M, Morris PG, Murray SA. Social, psychological and existential well-being in patients with glioma and their caregivers: a qualitative study. CMAJ 2012; 184(7): E373-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.111622] [PMID: 22431898]
[65]
Al-Okaili RN, Krejza J, Wang S, Woo JH, Melhem ER. Advanced MR imaging techniques in the diagnosis of intraaxial brain tumor in adults. Radiographics 2006; 26(Suppl. 1): S173-89.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1148/rg.26si065513] [PMID: 17050514]
[66]
Marshall LF, Marshall SB, Klauber MR, et al. The diagnosis of head injury requires a classification based on computed axial tomography. J Neurotrauma 1992; 9(Suppl. 1): S287-92.
[PMID: 1588618]
[67]
Levin VA, Crafts DC, Norman DM, Hoffer PB, Spire JP, Wilson CB. Criteria for evaluating patients undergoing chemotherapy for malignant brain tumor. J Neurosurg 1977; 47(3): 329-35.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3171/jns.1977.47.3.0329] [PMID: 894339]
[68]
Hammoud MA, Sawaya R, Shi W, Thall PF, Leeds NE. Prognostic significance of preoperative MRI scans in glioblastoma multiforme. J Neurooncol 1996; 27(1): 65-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00146086] [PMID: 8699228]
[69]
Shapiro WR. Treatment of neuroectodermal brain tumor. Ann Neurol 1982; 12(3): 231-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ana.410120302] [PMID: 6753729]
[70]
Magilligan DJ Jr, Duvernoy C, Malik G, Lewis JW Jr, Knighton R, Ausman JI. Surgical approach to lung cancer with solitary cerebral metastasis: twenty-five years’ experience. Ann Thorac Surg 1986; 42(4): 360-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0003-4975(10)60536-X] [PMID: 3767508]
[71]
Caruso DA, Orme LM, Neale AM, et al. Results of a phase 1 study utilizing monocyte-derived dendritic cells pulsed with tumor RNA in children and young adults with brain cancer. Neuro Oncol 2004; 6(3): 236-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/S1152851703000668] [PMID: 15279716]
[72]
Grimson WE, Kikinis R, Jolesz FA, Black PM. Image-guided surgery. Sci Am 1999; 280(6): 62-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican0699-62] [PMID: 10349732]
[73]
Barone DG, Lawrie TA, Hart MG. Image guided surgery for the resection of brain tumors. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014; (1): CD009685.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009685.pub2] [PMID: 24474579]
[74]
Shewach DS, Kuchta RD. Introduction to cancer chemotherapeutics. Chem Rev 2009; 109(7): 2859-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cr900208x] [PMID: 19583428]
[75]
Galluzzi L, Larochette N, Zamzami N, Kroemer G. Mitochondria as therapeutic targets for cancer chemotherapy. Oncogene 2006; 25(34): 4812-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.onc.1209598] [PMID: 16892093]
[76]
Hartwell LH, Kastan MB. Cell cycle control and cancer. Science 1994; 266(5192): 1821-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.7997877] [PMID: 7997877]
[77]
Owa T, Yoshino H, Yoshimatsu K, Nagasu T. Cell cycle regulation in the G1 phase: a promising target for the development of new chemotherapeutic anticancer agents. Curr Med Chem 2001; 8(12): 1487-503.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/0929867013371996] [PMID: 11562278]
[78]
Peters C, Brown S. Antibody-drug conjugates as novel anti-cancer chemotherapeutics. Biosci Rep 2015; 35(4): e00225-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/BSR20150089] [PMID: 26182432]
[79]
Rosenberg SA, Spiess P, Lafreniere R. A new approach to the adoptive immunotherapy of cancer with tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes. Science 1986; 233(4770): 1318-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.3489291] [PMID: 3489291]
[80]
Grodstein F, Newcomb PA, Stampfer MJ. Postmenopausal hormone therapy and the risk of colorectal cancer: a review and meta- analysis. Am J Med 1999; 106(5): 574-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9343(99)00063-7] [PMID: 10335731]
[81]
Sharif Y, Jumah F, Coplan L, Krosser A, Sharif K, Tubbs RS. Blood brain barrier: A review of its anatomy and physiology in health and disease. Clin Anat 2018; 31(6): 812-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ca.23083] [PMID: 29637627]
[82]
Kesari S, Advani SJ, Lawson JD, et al. DNA damage response and repair: insights into strategies for radiation sensitization of gliomas. Future Oncol 2011; 7(11): 1335-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2217/fon.11.111] [PMID: 22044206]
[83]
Murray D, McEwan AJ. Radiobiology of systemic radiation therapy. Cancer Biother Radiopharm 2007; 22(1): 1-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cbr.2006.531] [PMID: 17627411]
[84]
Sadeghi M, Enferadi M, Shirazi A. External and internal radiation therapy: past and future directions. J Cancer Res Ther 2010; 6(3): 239-48.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0973-1482.73324] [PMID: 21119247]
[85]
Pickles MD, Gibbs P, Lowry M, Turnbull LW. Diffusion changes precede size reduction in neoadjuvant treatment of breast cancer. Magn Reson Imaging 2006; 24(7): 843-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mri.2005.11.005] [PMID: 16916701]
[86]
Wardman P. Chemical radiosensitizers for use in radiotherapy. Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol) 2007; 19(6): 397-417.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clon.2007.03.010] [PMID: 17478086]
[87]
Allison RR, Sibata CH. Oncologic photodynamic therapy photosensitizers: a clinical review. Photodiagn Photodyn Ther 2010; 7(2): 61-75.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pdpdt.2010.02.001] [PMID: 20510301]
[88]
Chow E, Zeng L, Salvo N, Dennis K, Tsao M, Lutz S. Update on the systematic review of palliative radiotherapy trials for bone metastases. Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol) 2012; 24(2): 112-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clon.2011.11.004] [PMID: 22130630]
[89]
Fiveash JB, Hanks G, Roach M, et al. 3D conformal radiation therapy (3DCRT) for high grade prostate cancer: a multi-institutional review. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2000; 47(2): 335-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0360-3016(00)00441-7] [PMID: 10802357]
[90]
Bortfeld T. IMRT: a review and preview. Phys Med Biol 2006; 51(13): R363-79.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0031-9155/51/13/R21] [PMID: 16790913]
[91]
Rong Y, Welsh JS. Dosimetric and clinical review of helical tomotherapy. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther 2011; 11(2): 309-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1586/era.10.175] [PMID: 21342048]
[92]
Paunesku T, Woloschak GE. Future directions of intraoperative radiation therapy: a brief review. Front Oncol 2017; 7: 300.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2017.00300] [PMID: 29312882]
[93]
Meert AP, Paesmans M, Berghmans T, et al. Prophylactic cranial irradiation in small cell lung cancer: a systematic review of the literature with meta-analysis. BMC Cancer 2001; 1: 5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2407-1-5] [PMID: 11432756]
[94]
Wang D. A critical appraisal of the clinical utility of proton therapy in oncology. Med Devices (Auckl) 2015; 8: 439-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/MDER.S65594] [PMID: 26604838]
[95]
Fontenot JD, Lee AK, Newhauser WD. Risk of secondary malignant neoplasms from proton therapy and intensity-modulated x-ray therapy for early-stage prostate cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2009; 74(2): 616-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrobp.2009.01.001] [PMID: 19427561]
[96]
Wang X, Poenisch F, Sahoo N, et al. Spot scanning proton therapy minimizes neutron dose in the setting of radiation therapy administered during pregnancy. J Appl Clin Med Phys 2016; 17(5): 366-76.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1120/jacmp.v17i5.6327] [PMID: 27685136]
[97]
Smith BR, Hyer DE, Hill PM, Culberson WS. Secondary neutron dose from a dynamic collimation system during intracranial pencil beam scanning proton therapy: a monte carlo investigation. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2019; 103(1): 241-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrobp.2018.08.012] [PMID: 30114462]
[98]
Gerbershagen A, Meer D, Schippers JM, Seidel M. A novel beam optics concept in a particle therapy gantry utilizing the advantages of superconducting magnets. Z Med Phys 2016; 26(3): 224-37.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.zemedi.2016.03.006] [PMID: 27084590]
[99]
Lasalvia M, Perna G, Manti L, Rasero J, Stramaglia S, Capozzi V. Raman spectroscopy monitoring of MCF10A cells irradiated by protons at clinical doses. Int J Radiat Biol 2019; 95(2): 207-14.
[PMID: 30496011]
[100]
Rwigema JM, Langendijk JA, Paul van der Laan H, Lukens JN, Swisher-McClure SD, Lin A. A model-based approach to predict short-term toxicity benefits with proton therapy for oropharyngeal cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2019; 104(3): 553-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrobp.2018.12.055] [PMID: 30625409]
[101]
Ying C, Bolst D, Tran L, Guatelli S, Rosenfeld A, Kamil W. Contributions of secondary fragmentation by carbon ion beams in water phantom: Monte Carlo simulation. J Phys Conf Ser 2017; 851: 012033.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/851/1/012033]
[102]
Yuan KH, Li Q, Yu WL, Huang Z. Photodynamic therapy in treatment of port wine stain birthmarks- recent progress. Photodiagn Photodyn Ther 2009; 6(3-4): 189-94.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pdpdt.2009.08.001] [PMID: 19932450]
[103]
Grosshans DR, Duman JG, Gaber MW, Sawakuchi G. Particle radiation induced neurotoxicity in the central nervous system. Int J Part Ther 2018; 5(1): 74-83.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.14338/IJPT-18-00026.1] [PMID: 31773021]
[104]
Stone HB, Coleman CN, Anscher MS, McBride WH. Effects of radiation on normal tissue: consequences and mechanisms. Lancet Oncol 2003; 4(9): 529-36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(03)01191-4] [PMID: 12965273]
[105]
Jones A. Transient radiation myelopathy. Br J Radiol 1964; 37(442): 727-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1259/0007-1285-37-442-727] [PMID: 14217730]
[106]
Sheline GE, Wara WM, Smith V. Therapeutic irradiation and brain injury. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 1980; 6(9): 1215-28.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0360-3016(80)90175-3] [PMID: 7007303]
[107]
Schnegg CI, Robbins ME. Neuroprotective mechanisms of PPARδ: modulation of oxidative stress and inflammatory processes. PPAR Res 2011; 2011: 373560.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2011/373560] [PMID: 22135673]
[108]
Tang FR, Loganovsky K. Low dose or low dose rate ionizing radiation-induced health effect in the human. J Environ Radioact 2018; 192: 32-47.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2018.05.018] [PMID: 29883875]
[109]
Varanda E, Tavares D. Radioprotection: mechanisms and radioprotective agents including honeybee venom. J Venom Anim Toxins 1998; 4(1)
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0104-79301998000100002]
[110]
Ashwood-Smith M. Radioprotective and cryoprotective properties of dimethyl sulfoxide in cellular systems. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1967; 141(1): 45-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1967.tb34865.x]
[111]
Papac RJ. Origins of cancer therapy. Yale J Biol Med 2001; 74(6): 391-8.
[PMID: 11922186]
[112]
Nikoghosyan AV, Rauch G, Münter MW, et al. Randomised trial of proton vs. carbon ion radiation therapy in patients with low and intermediate grade chondrosarcoma of the skull base, clinical phase III study. BMC Cancer 2010; 10: 606.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2407-10-606] [PMID: 21050498]
[113]
Oike T, Sato H, Noda SE, Nakano T. Translational research to improve the efficacy of carbon ion radiotherapy: experience of gunma university. Front Oncol 2016; 6: 139.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2016.00139] [PMID: 27376029]
[114]
Sharma NK, Sharma R, Mathur D, et al. Role of ionizing radiation in neurodegenerative diseases. Front Aging Neurosci 2018; 10: 134.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2018.00134] [PMID: 29867445]
[115]
Mori S, Sakata Y, Hirai R, et al. Commissioning of a fluoroscopic-based real-time markerless tumor tracking system in a superconducting rotating gantry for carbon-ion pencil beam scanning treatment. Med Phys 2019; 46(4): 1561-74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mp.13403] [PMID: 30689205]
[116]
Nakano T, Ohno T, Ishikawa H, Suzuki Y, Takahashi T. Current advancement in radiation therapy for uterine cervical cancer. J Radiat Res (Tokyo) 2010; 51(1): 1-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1269/jrr.09132] [PMID: 20173313]
[117]
Li Y, Kubota Y, Tashiro M, Ohno T. Value of three-dimensional imaging systems for image-guided carbon ion radiotherapy. Cancers (Basel) 2019; 11(3): 297.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cancers11030297] [PMID: 30832346]
[118]
Ebner DK, Tinganelli W, Helm A, et al. The immunoregulatory potential of particle radiation in cancer therapy. Front Immunol 2017; 8: 99.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2017.00099] [PMID: 28220126]
[119]
Grant R. Overview: Brain tumor diagnosis and management/Royal College of Physicians guidelines. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2004; 75(Suppl. 2): ii18-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.2004.040360] [PMID: 15146035]
[120]
Kumar AJ, Leeds NE, Fuller GN, et al. Malignant gliomas: MR imaging spectrum of radiation therapy- and chemotherapy-induced necrosis of the brain after treatment. Radiology 2000; 217(2): 377-84.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1148/radiology.217.2.r00nv36377] [PMID: 11058631]
[121]
Desai A, Yan Y, Gerson SL. Concise reviews: cancer stem cell targeted therapies: toward clinical success. Stem Cells Transl Med 2019; 8(1): 75-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sctm.18-0123] [PMID: 30328686]
[122]
Tuleasca C, George M, Schiappacasse L, et al. Gamma Knife radiosurgery for intravestibular and intracochlear schwannomas. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2019; 161(1): 63-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00701-018-3762-y] [PMID: 30535852]
[123]
Zanoletti E, Cazzador D, Faccioli C. Multi-option therapy vs. observation for small acoustic neuroma: hearing-focused management. Acta otorhinolaryngologica Italica: organo ufficiale della Societa italiana di otorinolaringologia e chirurgia cervico-facciale 2018; 38: 384-92.
[124]
Heery CR. Chordoma: the quest for better treatment options. Oncol Ther 2016; 4(1): 35-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40487-016-0016-0] [PMID: 28261639]
[125]
Khan MA, Godil SS, Tabani H, Panju SA, Enam SA. Clinical review of pediatric pilocytic astrocytomas treated at a tertiary care hospital in Pakistan. Surg Neurol Int 2012; 3(1): 90.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2152-7806.99936] [PMID: 23050204]
[126]
Pedersen CL, Romner B. Current treatment of low grade astrocytoma: a review. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2013; 115(1): 1-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clineuro.2012.07.002] [PMID: 22819718]
[127]
Grimm SA, Chamberlain MC. Anaplastic astrocytoma. CNS Oncol 2016; 5(3): 145-57.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2217/cns-2016-0002] [PMID: 27230974]
[128]
Davis ME. Glioblastoma: Overview of disease and treatment. Clin J Oncol Nurs 2016; 20(Suppl. 5): S2-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1188/16.CJON.S1.2-8] [PMID: 27668386]
[129]
Korfel A, Schlegel U. Diagnosis and treatment of primary CNS lymphoma. Nat Rev Neurol 2013; 9(6): 317-27.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrneurol.2013.83] [PMID: 23670107]
[130]
Rykaczewski B, Zabek M. A meta-analysis of treatment of vestibular schwannoma using Gamma Knife radiosurgery. Contemp Oncol (Pozn) 2014; 18(1): 60-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5114/wo.2014.39840] [PMID: 24876823]
[131]
Mrowczynski OD, Langan ST, Rizk EB. Craniopharyngiomas: A systematic review and evaluation of the current intratumoral treatment landscape. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2018; 166: 124-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clineuro.2018.01.039] [PMID: 29408768]
[132]
De Braganca KC, Packer RJ. Treatment options for medulloblastoma and CNS primitive neuroectodermal tumor. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2013; 15(5): 593-606.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11940-013-0255-4] [PMID: 23979905]
[133]
Levy A. Pituitary disease: presentation, diagnosis, and management. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry 2004; 75(3): iii47-52.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.2004.045740]
[134]
Torensma R. The dilemma of cure and damage in oligodendroglioma: ways to tip the balance away from the damage. Cancers (Basel) 2018; 10(11): 431.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cancers10110431] [PMID: 30424475]
[135]
Grimm SA, Chamberlain MC. Brainstem glioma: a review. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2013; 13(5): 346.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11910-013-0346-3] [PMID: 23512689]
[136]
Brown PD, Ballman KV, Cerhan JH, et al. Postoperative stereotactic radiosurgery compared with whole brain radiotherapy for resected metastatic brain disease (NCCTG N107C/CEC·3): a multicentre, randomised, controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol 2017; 18(8): 1049-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(17)30441-2] [PMID: 28687377]
[137]
Zhang X-W, Wu X-Y, Sheng X-F, et al. Ependymoma diagnosis and treatment progress. Int J Clin Exp Med 2016; 9(8): 15050-7.
[138]
Jain A, Amin AG, Jain P, et al. Subependymoma: clinical features and surgical outcomes. Neurol Res 2012; 34(7): 677-84.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/1743132812Y.0000000064] [PMID: 22747714]
[139]
Barbara TE. Radiation therapy in optic gliomas: a case report and a review of literature. J Nucl Med Radiat Ther 2012; 03(04): 1-4.
[140]
Ramaswamy V, Taylor MD. Medulloblastoma: from myth to molecular. J Clin Oncol 2017; 35(21): 2355-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2017.72.7842] [PMID: 28640708]
[141]
Shaikh N, Dixit K, Raizer J. Recent advances in managing/understanding meningioma. F1000 Res 2018; 7: 7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.13674.1] [PMID: 29770198]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
65
1
Wayfinder Image
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy