Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Current Vascular Pharmacology

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1570-1611
ISSN (Online): 1875-6212

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Review Article

Obesity and Gestational Diabetes in Pregnant Care and Clinical Practice

Author(s): José Andrés Poblete* and Pablo Olmos

Volume 19, Issue 2, 2021

Published on: 28 June, 2020

Page: [154 - 164] Pages: 11

DOI: 10.2174/1570161118666200628142353

Price: $65

Open Access Journals Promotions 2
conference banner
Abstract

Obesity and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) are the most frequent pathologies affecting mothers and offspring during pregnancy. Both conditions have shown a sustained increase in their prevalence in recent years, and they worsen the outcome of pregnancy and the long-term health of mothers. Obesity increases the risk of GDM and pre-eclampsia during pregnancy and elevates the risk of developing metabolic syndrome in later life. Offspring of obese mothers have an increased risk of obstetric morbidity and mortality and, consistent with the developmental origins of health and disease, a long term risk of childhood obesity and metabolic dysfunction. On the other hand, GDM also increases the risk of pre-eclampsia, caesarean section, and up to 50% of women will develop type 2 diabetes later in life. From a fetal point of view, it increases the risk of macrosomia, large-for-gestational-age fetuses, shoulder dystocia and birth trauma. The insulin resistance and inflammatory mediators released by a hypoxic trophoblast are mainly responsible for the poor pregnancy outcome in obese or GDM patients. The adequate management of both pathologies includes modifications in the diet and physical activity. Drug therapy should be considered when medical nutrition therapy and moderate physical activity fail to achieve treatment goals. The antenatal prediction of macrosomia is a challenge for physicians. The timing and the route of delivery should consider adequate metabolic control, gestational age, and optimal conditions for a vaginal birth. The best management of these pathologies includes pre-conception planning to reduce the risks during pregnancy and improve the quality of life of these patients.

Keywords: Obesity, gestational diabetes mellitus, risks, treatment, pregnant care, pregnancy.

« Previous Next »
[1]
NCD Risk Factor Collaboration (NCD-RisC). Worldwide trends in diabetes since 1980: a pooled analysis of 751 population-based studies with 4.4 million participants. Lancet 2016; 387(10027): 1513-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)00618-8] [PMID: 27061677]
[2]
Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Kit BK, Ogden CL. Prevalence of obesity and trends in the distribution of body mass index among US adults, 1999-2010. JAMA 2012; 307(5): 491-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2012.39] [PMID: 22253363]
[3]
Catalano PM. Management of obesity in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 2007; 109(2 Pt 1): 419-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.AOG.0000253311.44696.85] [PMID: 17267845]
[4]
Rasmussen KM, Yaktine AL. Committee to Reexamine IOM pregnancy weight guidelines weight gain during pregnancy: reexamining the guidelines Institute of Medicine (US) and National Research Council Washington (DC). National Academies Press (US) 2009.
[5]
Aune D, Saugstad OD, Henriksen T, Tonstad S. Maternal body mass index and the risk of fetal death, stillbirth, and infant death: a sys-tematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2014; 311(15): 1536-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2014.2269] [PMID: 24737366]
[6]
Boney CM, Verma A, Tucker R, Vohr BR. Metabolic syndrome in childhood: association with birth weight, maternal obesity, and ges-tational diabetes mellitus. Pediatrics 2005; 115(3): e290-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2004-1808] [PMID: 15741354]
[7]
Buchanan TA, Xiang AH, Page KA. Gestational diabetes mellitus: risks and management during and after pregnancy. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2012; 8(11): 639-49.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrendo.2012.96] [PMID: 22751341]
[8]
Chan M. Obesity and diabetes: the slow-motion disaster Keynote address at the 47th meeting of the national academy of medicine. Speech of the Director-General of the World Health Organization Washington, DC, USA 2016
[9]
Zhu Y, Zhang C. Prevalence of gestational diabetes and risk of progression to type 2 diabetes: a global perspective. Curr Diab Rep 2016; 16(1): 7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11892-015-0699-x] [PMID: 26742932]
[10]
Garrison A. Screening, diagnosis, and management of gestational diabetes mellitus. Am Fam Physician 2015; 91(7): 460-7.
[PMID: 25884746]
[11]
Metzger BE, Gabbe SG, Persson B, et al. International association of diabetes and pregnancy study groups consensus panel. International association of diabetes and pregnancy study groups recommendations on the diagnosis and classification of hyperglycemia in pregnancy. Diabetes Care 2010; 33(3): 676-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc09-1848] [PMID: 20190296]
[12]
Metzger BE, Lowe LP, Dyer AR, et al. Hyperglycemia and adverse pregnancy outcomes. N Engl J Med 2008; 358(19): 1991-2002.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0707943] [PMID: 18463375]
[13]
Mariona FG. Perspectives in obesity and pregnancy. Women’s Health (Lond) 2016; 12(6): 523-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1745505716686101] [PMID: 29334009]
[14]
Starling AP, Brinton JT, Glueck DH, et al. Associations of maternal BMI and gestational weight gain with neonatal adiposity in the Healthy Start study. Am J Clin Nutr 2015; 101(2): 302-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.114.094946] [PMID: 25646327]
[15]
Nicklas JM, Barbour LA. Optimizing weight for maternal and infant health - tenable, or too late? Expert Rev Endocrinol Metab 2015; 10(2): 227-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1586/17446651.2014.991102] [PMID: 26442123]
[16]
Olson CM, Strawderman MS, Dennison BA. Maternal weight gain during pregnancy and child weight at age 3 years. Matern Child Health J 2009; 13(6): 839-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10995-008-0413-6] [PMID: 18818995]
[17]
Catalano PM, Farrell K, Thomas A, et al. Perinatal risk factors for childhood obesity and metabolic dysregulation. Am J Clin Nutr 2009; 90(5): 1303-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2008.27416] [PMID: 19759171]
[18]
Reynolds RM, Osmond C, Phillips DI, Godfrey KM. Maternal BMI, parity, and pregnancy weight gain: influences on offspring adiposity in young adulthood. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010; 95(12): 5365-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2010-0697] [PMID: 20702520]
[19]
Health United States; Tables 2015 Complete List CDC gov. 2020.Available at . http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/hus/contents2015.htm#058 cited 21 May 2020
[20]
Moody A. Adult anthropometric measures, overweight, and obesity Health survey for England 2013. The Health and Social Care Information Centre 2014; 1-39.
[21]
Devlieger R, Benhalima K, Damm P, et al. Maternal obesity in Europe: where do we stand and how to move forward? A scientific paper commissioned by the European board and college of obstetrics and gynaecology (EBCOG). Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2016; 201: 203-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejogrb.2016.04.005] [PMID: 27160501]
[22]
Encuesta National Health Survey 2016-2017. Available at https://www.minsal.cl/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/2-Resultados-ENS_MINSAL_31_01_2018.pdf cited 21 May 2020
[23]
Fox A, Feng W, Asal V. What is driving global obesity trends? Globalization or “modernization”? Global Health 2019; 15(1): 32-48.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12992-019-0457-y] [PMID: 31029156]
[24]
Popkin BM, Adair LS, Ng SW. Global nutrition transition and the pandemic of obesity in developing countries. Nutr Rev 2012; 70(1): 3-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.2011.00456.x] [PMID: 22221213]
[25]
Mendez MA, Monteiro CA, Popkin BM. Overweight exceeds underweight among women in most developing countries. Am J Clin Nutr 2005; 81(3): 714-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/81.3.714] [PMID: 15755843]
[26]
Lopez-Jimenez F, Miranda WR. Diagnosing obesity: beyond BMI. Virtual Mentor 2010; 12(4): 292-8.
[PMID: 23148835]
[27]
Fogelholm M, van Marken Lichtenbelt W. Comparison of body composition methods: a literature analysis. Eur J Clin Nutr 1997; 51(8): 495-503.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1600448] [PMID: 11248873]
[28]
Body Mass Index B.M. Eurowhoint 2020. Available at. http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/disease prevention/nutrition/a-healthy-lifestyle/body-mass-index-bmi cited 21 May 2020
[29]
Jarvie E, Hauguel-de-Mouzon S, Nelson SM, Sattar N, Catalano PM, Freeman DJ. Lipotoxicity in obese pregnancy and its potential role in adverse pregnancy outcome and obesity in the offspring. Clin Sci 2010; 119(3): 123-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/CS20090640] [PMID: 20443782]
[30]
Reyes LM, García RG, Ruiz SL, et al. Angiogenic imbalance and plasma lipid alterations in women with preeclampsia from a developing country. Growth Factors 2012; 30(3): 158-66.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/08977194.2012.674035] [PMID: 22486210]
[31]
Roberts KA, Riley SC, Reynolds RM, et al. Placental structure and inflammation in pregnancies associated with obesity. Placenta 2011; 32(3): 247-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.placenta.2010.12.023] [PMID: 21232790]
[32]
Kao CK, Morton JS, Quon AL, Reyes LM, Lopez-Jaramillo P, Davidge ST. Mechanism of vascular dysfunction due to circulating factors in women with pre-eclampsia. Clin Sci (Lond) 2016; 130(7): 539-49.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/CS20150678] [PMID: 26733722]
[33]
Hunkapiller NM, Gasperowicz M, Kapidzic M, et al. A role for Notch signaling in trophoblast endovascular invasion and in the pathogenesis of pre-eclampsia. Development 2011; 138(14): 2987-98.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/dev.066589] [PMID: 21693515]
[34]
ACOG Practice Bulletin No 156: Obesity in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 2015; 126(6): e112-26.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000001211] [PMID: 26595582]
[35]
Practice Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine. Obesity and reproduction: a committee opinion. Fertil Steril 2015; 104(5): 1116-26.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2015.08.018] [PMID: 26434804]
[36]
Yi XY, Li QF, Zhang J, Wang ZH. A meta-analysis of maternal and fetal outcomes of pregnancy after bariatric surgery. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2015; 130(1): 3-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgo.2015.01.011] [PMID: 25863541]
[37]
Roos N, Neovius M, Cnattingius S, et al. Perinatal outcomes after bariatric surgery: nationwide population based matched cohort study. BMJ 2013; 347: f6460.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.f6460] [PMID: 24222480]
[38]
Simmons D. Prevention of gestational diabetes mellitus: Where are we now? Diabetes Obes Metab 2015; 17(9): 824-34.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/dom.12495] [PMID: 25974384]
[39]
Adamo KB, Ferraro ZM, Brett KE. Pregnancy is a critical period for the prevention of obesity and cardiometabolic risk. Can J Diabetes 2012; 36: 133-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcjd.2012.05.004]
[40]
Ferraro ZM, Barrowman N, Prud’homme D, et al. Excessive gestational weight gain predicts large for gestational age neonates independent of maternal body mass index. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2012; 25(5): 538-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/14767058.2011.638953] [PMID: 22081936]
[41]
Rasmussen KM, Yaktine AL. Committee to Reexamine IOM pregnancy weight guidelines weight gain during pregnancy: reexamining the guidelines Institute of Medicine (US) and National Research Council Washington (DC). US: National Academies Press 2009.
[42]
Muktabhant B, Lawrie TA, Lumbiganon P, Laopaiboon M. Diet or exercise, or both, for preventing excessive weight gain in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015; 6CD007145
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD007145.pub3] [PMID: 26068707]
[43]
Kjær MM, Lauenborg J, Breum BM, Nilas L. The risk of adverse pregnancy outcome after bariatric surgery: a nationwide register-based matched cohort study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2013; 208(6): 464.e1-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2013.02.046] [PMID: 23467053]
[44]
Blumer I, Hadar E, Hadden DR, et al. Diabetes and pregnancy: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013; 98(11): 4227-49.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2013-2465] [PMID: 24194617]
[45]
Dutton H, Borengasser SJ, Gaudet LM, Barbour LA, Keely EJ. Obesity in Pregnancy: Optimizing Outcomes for Mom and Baby. Med Clin North Am 2018; 102(1): 87-106.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mcna.2017.08.008] [PMID: 29156189]
[46]
Marchi J, Berg M, Dencker A, Olander EK, Begley C. Risks associated with obesity in pregnancy, for the mother and baby: a systematic review of reviews. Obes Rev 2015; 16(8): 621-38.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/obr.12288] [PMID: 26016557]
[47]
Glazer NL, Hendrickson AF, Schellenbaum GD, Mueller BA. Weight change and the risk of gestational diabetes in obese women. Epidemiology 2004; 15(6): 733-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.ede.0000142151.16880.03] [PMID: 15475723]
[48]
Jain AP, Gavard JA, Rice JJ, Catanzaro RB, Artal R, Hopkins SA. The impact of interpregnancy weight change on birthweight in obese women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2013; 208(3): 205.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2012.12.018] [PMID: 23246318]
[49]
Callegari LS, Sterling LA, Zelek ST, Hawes SE, Reed SD. Interpregnancy body mass index change and success of term vaginal birth after cesarean delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2014; 210(4): 330.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2013.11.013] [PMID: 24215856]
[50]
Amorim Adegboye AR, Linne YM. Diet or exercise, or both, for weight reduction in women after childbirth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; 7CD005627
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD005627.pub3] [PMID: 23881656]
[51]
Catalano PM, McIntyre HD, Cruickshank JK, et al. The hyperglycemia and adverse pregnancy outcome study: associations of GDM and obesity with pregnancy outcomes. Diabetes Care 2012; 35(4): 780-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc11-1790] [PMID: 22357187]
[52]
Chu SY, Callaghan WM, Kim SY, et al. Maternal obesity and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 2007; 30(8): 2070-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc06-2559a] [PMID: 17416786]
[53]
England LJ, Dietz PM, Njoroge T, et al. Preventing type 2 diabetes: public health implications for women with a history of gestational diabetes mellitus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2009; 200(4): 365.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2008.06.031] [PMID: 18691691]
[54]
Kjos SL, Peters RK, Xiang A, Henry OA, Montoro M, Buchanan TA. Predicting future diabetes in Latino women with gestational diabetes. Utility of early postpartum glucose tolerance testing. Diabetes 1995; 44(5): 586-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diab.44.5.586] [PMID: 7729620]
[55]
Committee on Practice Bulletins-Obstetrics. Practice bulletin no. 137: Gestational diabetes mellitus. Obstet Gynecol 2013; 122(2 Pt 1): 406-16.
[PMID: 23969827]
[56]
Whalen KL, Taylor J. Gestational diabetes mellitus PSAP 2017, Book 1 Endocrinology/Nephrology 2017; 7-26.
[57]
Hartling L, Dryden DM, Guthrie A, Muise M, Vandermeer B, Donovan L. Benefits and harms of treating gestational diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis for the U.S. Preventive services task force and the national institutes of health office of medical applications of research. Ann Intern Med 2013; 159(2): 123-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-159-2-201307160-00661] [PMID: 23712381]
[58]
Landon MB, Spong CY, Thom E, et al. Eunice kennedy shriver national institute of child health and human development maternal-fetal medicine units network. A multicenter, randomized trial of treatment for mild gestational diabetes. N Engl J Med 2009; 361(14): 1339-48.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0902430] [PMID: 19797280]
[59]
Brown J, Grzeskowiak L, Williamson K, Downie MR, Crowther CA. Insulin for the treatment of women with gestational diabetes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2017; 11(11)CD012037
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD012037.pub2] [PMID: 29103210]
[60]
Colberg SR, Sigal RJ, Fernhall B, et al. American college of sports medicine; american diabetes association. Exercise and type 2 diabetes: the American college of sports medicine and the american diabetes association: joint position statement. Diabetes Care 2010; 33(12): e147-67.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc10-9990] [PMID: 21115758]
[61]
Sanabria-Martínez G, García-Hermoso A, Poyatos-León R, Álvarez-Bueno C, Sánchez-López M, Martínez-Vizcaíno V. Effectiveness of physical activity interventions on preventing gestational diabetes mellitus and excessive maternal weight gain: a meta-analysis. BJOG 2015; 122(9): 1167-74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1471-0528.13429] [PMID: 26036300]
[62]
Chudyk A, Petrella RJ. Effects of exercise on cardiovascular risk factors in type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis. Diabetes Care 2011; 34(5): 1228-37.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc10-1881] [PMID: 21525503]
[63]
Oteng-Ntim E, Varma R, Croker H, Poston L, Doyle P. Lifestyle interventions for overweight and obese pregnant women to improve pregnancy outcome: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Med 2012; 10: 47.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-10-47] [PMID: 22574949]
[64]
Briley AL, Barr S, Badger S, et al. A complex intervention to improve pregnancy outcome in obese women; the UPBEAT randomised controlled trial. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2014; 14: 74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2393-14-74] [PMID: 24533897]
[65]
Brown J, Ceysens G, Boulvain M. Exercise for pregnant women with gestational diabetes for improving maternal and fetal outcomes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2017; 6(6)CD012202
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD012202.pub2] [PMID: 28639706]
[66]
Mahajan A, Donovan LE, Vallee R, Yamamoto JM. Evidenced-Based Nutrition for Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Curr Diab Rep 2019; 19(10): 94.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11892-019-1208-4] [PMID: 31473839]
[67]
Marangoni F, Cetin I, Verduci E, et al. Maternal diet and nutrient requirements in pregnancy and breastfeeding. Nutrients 2016; 8(10): 629.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu8100629] [PMID: 27754423]
[68]
Yamamoto JM, Kellett JE, Balsells M, et al. Gestational diabetes mellitus and diet: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials examining the impact of modified dietary interventions on maternal glucose control and neonatal birth weight. Diabetes Care 2018; 41(7): 1346-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc18-0102] [PMID: 29934478]
[69]
de la Torre NG, Assaf-Balut C, Jiménez Varas I, et al. Effectiveness of Following Mediterranean Diet Recommendations in the Real World in the Incidence of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (GDM) and adverse maternal-foetal outcomes: A Prospective, Universal, Interventional study with a single group. The St Carlos study. Nutrients 2019; 11(6): 1210-25.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu11061210] [PMID: 31141972]
[70]
Sacks FM, Svetkey LP, Vollmer WM, et al. Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the dietary approaches to stop hypertension (DASH) diet. N Engl J Med 2001; 344(1): 3-10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM200101043440101] [PMID: 11136953]
[71]
Asemi Z, Samimi M, Tabassi Z, Esmaillzadeh A. The effect of DASH diet on pregnancy outcomes in gestational diabetes: a randomized controlled clinical trial. Eur J Clin Nutr 2014; 68(4): 490-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2013.296] [PMID: 24424076]
[72]
Metzger BE, Buchanan TA, Coustan DR, et al. Summary and recommendations of the fifth international workshop-conference on gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 2007; 30(Suppl. 2): S251-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc07-s225] [PMID: 17596481]
[73]
Han S, Crowther CA, Middleton P, Heatley E. Different types of dietary advice for women with gestational diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; 3CD009275
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009275.pub2] [PMID: 23543574]
[74]
Louie JC, Markovic TP, Perera N, et al. A randomized controlled trial investigating the effects of a low-glycemic index diet on pregnancy outcomes in gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 2011; 34(11): 2341-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc11-0985] [PMID: 21900148]
[75]
Black MH, Sacks DA, Xiang AH, Lawrence JM. The relative contribution of prepregnancy overweight and obesity, gestational weight gain, and IADPSG-defined gestational diabetes mellitus to fetal overgrowth. Diabetes Care 2013; 36(1): 56-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc12-0741] [PMID: 22891256]
[76]
Gaillard R, Durmuş B, Hofman A, Mackenbach JP, Steegers EA, Jaddoe VW. Risk factors and outcomes of maternal obesity and excessive weight gain during pregnancy. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2013; 21(5): 1046-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/oby.20088] [PMID: 23784909]
[77]
American Diabetes Association. Management of diabetes in pregnancy. Diabetes Care 2016; 39(Suppl. 1): S94-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc16-S015] [PMID: 26696688]
[78]
Zhen XM, Li X, Chen C. Metformin versus insulin for gestational diabetes: the reporting of ethnicity and a meta-analysis combining English and Chinese literature. Obesity Med 2018; 11: 48-58.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.obmed.2018.08.001]
[79]
American Diabetes Association. Management of diabetes in pregnancy. Diabetes Care 2017; 40(Suppl. 1): S114-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc17-S016] [PMID: 27979900]
[80]
American Diabetes Association. 14. Management of diabetes in pregnancy: Standards of medical care in diabetes-2019. Diabetes Care 2019; 42(Suppl. 1): S165-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc19-S014] [PMID: 30559240]
[81]
Committee on Practice Bulletins-Obstetrics. ACOG practice bulletin No. 190: Gestational diabetes mellitus. Obstet Gynecol 2018; 131(2): e49-64.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000002501] [PMID: 29370047]
[82]
Kleinwechter H, Schäfer-Graf U, Bührer C, et al. German diabetes association; German association for gynecology and obstetrics. Ges-tational diabetes mellitus (GDM) diagnosis, therapy and follow-up care: Practice guideline of the german diabetes association (DDG) and the German association for gynaecology and obstetrics (DGGG). Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 2014; 122(7): 395-405.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0034-1366412] [PMID: 25014091]
[83]
Guo L, Ma J, Tang J, Hu D, Zhang W, Zhao X. Comparative efficacy and safety of metformin, glyburide, and insulin in treating gestational diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis. J Diabetes Res 2019; 20199804708
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2019/9804708] [PMID: 31781670]
[84]
Girard J. The inhibitory effects of insulin on hepatic glucose production are both direct and indirect. Diabetes 2006; 55(Suppl. 2): S65-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/db06-S009]
[85]
Refuerzo JS. Oral hypoglycemic agents in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am 2011; 38(2): 227-34.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ogc.2011.02.013] [PMID: 21575798]
[86]
Olmos PR, Rigotti A, Busso D, et al. Maternal hypertriglyceridemia: A link between maternal overweight-obesity and macrosomia in gestational diabetes. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2014; 22(10): 2156-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/oby.20816] [PMID: 24957884]
[87]
Olmos PR, Borzone GR. Basal-bolus insulin therapy reduces maternal triglycerides in gestational diabetes without modifying cholesteryl ester transfer protein activity. J Obstet Gynaecol Res 2017; 43(9): 1397-404.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jog.13403] [PMID: 28691362]
[88]
Wong B, Ooi TC, Keely E. Severe gestational hypertriglyceridemia: A practical approach for clinicians. Obstet Med 2015; 8(4): 158-67.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1753495X15594082] [PMID: 27512474]
[89]
Loomis L, Lee J, Tweed E, Fashner J. What is appropriate fetal surveillance for women with diet-controlled gestational diabetes? J Fam Pract 2006; 55(3): 238-40.
[PMID: 16510059]
[90]
Kjos SL, Schaefer-Graf UM. Modified therapy for gestational diabetes using high-risk and low-risk fetal abdominal circumference growth to select strict versus relaxed maternal glycemic targets. Diabetes Care 2007; 30(Suppl. 2): S200-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc07-s216] [PMID: 17596472]
[91]
Beta J, Khan N, Fiolna M, Khalil A, Ramadan G, Akolekar R. Maternal and neonatal complications of fetal macrosomia: cohort study. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2019; 54(3): 319-25.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/uog.20278] [PMID: 30938000]
[92]
Coomarasamy A, Connock M, Thornton J, Khan KS. Accuracy of ultrasound biometry in the prediction of macrosomia: a systematic quantitative review. BJOG 2005; 112(11): 1461-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-0528.2005.00702.x] [PMID: 16225563]
[93]
Scifres CM, Feghali M, Dumont T, et al. Large-for-gestational-age ultrasound diagnosis and risk for cesarean delivery in women with gestational diabetes mellitus. Obstet Gynecol 2015; 126(5): 978-86.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000001097] [PMID: 26444129]
[94]
Paganelli S, Soncini E, Comitini G, Palomba S, La Sala GB. Sonographic fetal weight estimation in normal and overweight/obese healthy term pregnant women by gestation-adjusted projection (GAP) method. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2016; 293(4): 775-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00404-015-3910-z] [PMID: 26482584]
[95]
Carmichael SL, Blumenfeld YJ, Mayo J, et al. March of dimes prematurity research center at stanford university school of medicine. prepregnancy obesity and risks of stillbirth. PLoS One 2015; 10(10)e0138549
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0138549] [PMID: 26466315]
[96]
Lee VRLB, Anjali K, Little S, Nicholson J, Caughey AB. Optimal timing of delivery in obese women: A decision analysis. Obstet Gynaecol 2014; 123(S1): 152S-3S.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.AOG.0000447144.44382.5a]
[97]
Melamed N, Ray JG, Geary M, et al. Induction of labor before 40 weeks is associated with lower rate of cesarean delivery in women with gestational diabetes mellitus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2016; 214(3): 364.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2015.12.021] [PMID: 26928149]
[98]
Niu B, Lee VR, Cheng YW, Frias AE, Nicholson JM, Caughey AB. What is the optimal gestational age for women with gestational diabetes type A1 to deliver? Am J Obstet Gynecol 2014; 211(4): 418.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2014.06.015] [PMID: 24912097]
[99]
Spong CY, Mercer BM, D’alton M, Kilpatrick S, Blackwell S, Saade G. Timing of indicated late-preterm and early-term birth. Obstet Gynecol 2011; 118(2 Pt 1): 323-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0b013e3182255999] [PMID: 21775849]
[100]
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG committee opinion no. 560: Medically indicated late-preterm and early-term deliveries. Obstet Gynecol 2013; 121(4): 908-10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.AOG.0000428648.75548.00] [PMID: 23635709]
[101]
Caughey AB, Valent AM. When to deliver women with diabetes in pregnancy? Am J Perinatol 2016; 33(13): 1250-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0036-1585589] [PMID: 27434693]
[102]
Moldéus K, Cheng YW, Wikström AK, Stephansson O. Induction of labor versus expectant management of large-for-gestational-age infants in nulliparous women. PLoS One 2017; 12(7)e0180748
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0180748] [PMID: 28727729]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
89
Wayfinder Image
Open Access Journals Promotions
World Prematurity Day
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy