Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Current Vascular Pharmacology

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1570-1611
ISSN (Online): 1875-6212

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Review Article

Vitamin D and Vascular Disease

Author(s): Ioanna Gouni-Berthold* and Heiner K. Berthold

Volume 19, Issue 3, 2021

Published on: 17 March, 2020

Page: [250 - 268] Pages: 19

DOI: 10.2174/1570161118666200317151955

Price: $65

conference banner
Abstract

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Vitamin D deficiency has been identified as a potential risk factor for a number of diseases unrelated to the classical skeletal pathophysiology, such as cancer and CVD, but the effects of vitamin D supplementation are less clear. Purpose of this narrative review is to discuss the evidence suggesting an association between vitamin D status and CVD as well as the results of supplementation studies.

Vitamin D deficiency has been associated with CVD risk factors such as hypertension, dyslipidemia and diabetes mellitus as well as with cardiovascular events such as myocardial infarction, stroke and heart failure. While vitamin D deficiency might contribute to the development of CVD through its association with risk factors, direct effects of vitamin D on the cardiovascular system may also be involved. Vitamin D receptors are expressed in a variety of tissues, including cardiomyocytes, vascular smooth muscle cells and endothelial cells. Moreover, vitamin D has been shown to affect inflammation, cell proliferation and differentiation.

While observational studies support an association between low plasma vitamin D levels and increased risk of CVD, Mendelian randomization studies do not support a causal association between the two. At present, high quality randomized trials do not find evidence of significant effects on CVD endpoints and do not support supplementation of vitamin D to decrease CVD events.

Keywords: Vitamin D, cholecalciferol, coronary artery disease, heart failure, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes mellitus.

« Previous Next »
[1]
Ebeling PR, Adler RA, Jones G, et al. MANAGEMENT OF ENDOCRINE DISEASE: Therapeutics of Vitamin D. Eur J Endocrinol 2018; 179(5): R239-59.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/EJE-18-0151] [PMID: 30131372]
[2]
Qi D, Nie X, Cai J. The effect of vitamin D supplementation on hypertension in non-CKD populations: A systemic review and meta-analysis. Int J Cardiol 2017; 227: 177-86.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcard.2016.11.040] [PMID: 27866065]
[3]
de Haan K, Groeneveld AB, de Geus HR, Egal M, Struijs A. Vitamin D deficiency as a risk factor for infection, sepsis and mortality in the critically ill: systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care 2014; 18(6): 660.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13054-014-0660-4] [PMID: 25475621]
[4]
Grammatiki M, Karras S, Kotsa K. The role of vitamin D in the pathogenesis and treatment of diabetes mellitus: a narrative review. Hormones (Athens) 2018; (5):
[5]
Qi L, Ma W, Heianza Y, et al. Independent and Synergistic Associations of Biomarkers of Vitamin D Status With Risk of Coronary Heart Disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2017; 37(11): 2204-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.117.309548] [PMID: 28882871]
[6]
Holick MF. Vitamin D deficiency. N Engl J Med 2007; 357(3): 266-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra070553] [PMID: 17634462]
[7]
Ross AC, Taylor CL, Yaktine AL, Del Valle HB, Eds. Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D the National Academies Collection: Reports Funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC 2011.
[8]
Francis RM, Aspray TJ, Bowring CE, et al. National osteoporosis society practical clinical guideline on vitamin D and bone health. Maturitas 2015; 80(2): 119-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.11.018] [PMID: 25510660]
[9]
Dawson-Hughes B. Racial/ethnic considerations in making recommendations for vitamin D for adult and elderly men and women. Am J Clin Nutr 2004; 80(Suppl. 6): 1763S-6S.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/80.6.1763S] [PMID: 15585802]
[10]
Holick MF, Binkley NC, Bischoff-Ferrari HA, et al. Evaluation, treatment, and prevention of vitamin D deficiency: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011; 96(7): 1911-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2011-0385] [PMID: 21646368]
[11]
Holick MF, Binkley NC, Bischoff-Ferrari HA, et al. Guidelines for preventing and treating vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency revisited. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012; 97(4): 1153-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2011-2601] [PMID: 22442274]
[12]
Holick MF. The vitamin D deficiency pandemic: Approaches for diagnosis, treatment and prevention. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 2017; 18(2): 153-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11154-017-9424-1] [PMID: 28516265]
[13]
Nitsa A, Toutouza M, Machairas N, Mariolis A, Philippou A, Koutsilieris M. Vitamin D in Cardiovascular Disease. In ViVo 2018; 32(5): 977-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.21873/invivo.11338] [PMID: 30150419]
[14]
Gouni-Berthold I, Krone W, Berthold HK. Vitamin D and cardiovascular disease. Curr Vasc Pharmacol 2009; 7(3): 414-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/157016109788340686] [PMID: 19601865]
[15]
Kimball S. Fuleihan Gel-H, Vieth R. Vitamin D: a growing perspective. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 2008; 45(4): 339-414.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10408360802165295] [PMID: 18568854]
[16]
Davey RX. Vitamin D-binding protein as it is understood in 2016: is it a critical key with which to help to solve the calcitriol conundrum? Ann Clin Biochem 2017; 54(2): 199-208.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0004563216677100] [PMID: 27742848]
[17]
Speeckaert M, Huang G, Delanghe JR, Taes YE. Biological and clinical aspects of the vitamin D binding protein (Gc-globulin) and its polymorphism. Clin Chim Acta 2006; 372(1-2): 33-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cca.2006.03.011] [PMID: 16697362]
[18]
Pike JW, Meyer MB, Lee SM, Onal M, Benkusky NA. The vitamin D receptor: contemporary genomic approaches reveal new basic and translational insights. J Clin Invest 2017; 127(4): 1146-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1172/JCI88887] [PMID: 28240603]
[19]
Hewison M, Burke F, Evans KN, et al. Extra-renal 25-hydroxyvitamin D3-1alpha-hydroxylase in human health and disease. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2007; 103(3-5): 316-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsbmb.2006.12.078] [PMID: 17368179]
[20]
Delanghe JR, Speeckaert R, Speeckaert MM. Behind the scenes of vitamin D binding protein: more than vitamin D binding. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2015; 29(5): 773-86.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.beem.2015.06.006] [PMID: 26522461]
[21]
White P, Cooke N. The multifunctional properties and characteristics of vitamin D-binding protein. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2000; 11(8): 320-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1043-2760(00)00317-9] [PMID: 10996527]
[22]
Norman AW. Minireview: vitamin D receptor: new assignments for an already busy receptor. Endocrinology 2006; 147(12): 5542-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/en.2006-0946] [PMID: 16946007]
[23]
Norman AW, Mizwicki MT, Norman DP. Steroid-hormone rapid actions, membrane receptors and a conformational ensemble model. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2004; 3(1): 27-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrd1283] [PMID: 14708019]
[24]
Neelankal John A, Jiang FX. An overview of type 2 diabetes and importance of vitamin D3-vitamin D receptor interaction in pancreatic β-cells. J Diabetes Complications 2018; 32(4): 429-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2017.12.002] [PMID: 29422234]
[25]
Le Mellay V, Grosse B, Lieberherr M. Phospholipase C beta and membrane action of calcitriol and estradiol. J Biol Chem 1997; 272(18): 11902-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.272.18.11902] [PMID: 9115251]
[26]
Boyan BD, Sylvia VL, Dean DD, et al. 1,25-(OH)2D3 modulates growth plate chondrocytes via membrane receptor-mediated protein kinase C by a mechanism that involves changes in phospholipid metabolism and the action of arachidonic acid and PGE2. Steroids 1999; 64(1-2): 129-36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0039-128X(98)00099-3] [PMID: 10323681]
[27]
Wali RK, Kong J, Sitrin MD, Bissonnette M, Li YC. Vitamin D receptor is not required for the rapid actions of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 to increase intracellular calcium and activate protein kinase C in mouse osteoblasts. J Cell Biochem 2003; 88(4): 794-801.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jcb.10432] [PMID: 12577313]
[28]
Gonzalez-Pardo V, D’Elia N, Verstuyf A, Boland R, Russo de Boland A. NFκB pathway is down-regulated by 1α,25(OH)(2)-vitamin D(3) in endothelial cells transformed by Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpes virus G protein coupled receptor. Steroids 2012; 77(11): 1025-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.steroids.2012.05.006] [PMID: 22683670]
[29]
Chen J, Doroudi M, Cheung J, Grozier AL, Schwartz Z, Boyan BD. Plasma membrane Pdia3 and VDR interact to elicit rapid responses to 1α,25(OH)(2)D(3). Cell Signal 2013; 25(12): 2362-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cellsig.2013.07.020] [PMID: 23896121]
[30]
O’Connell TD, Simpson RU. Immunochemical identification of the 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 receptor protein in human heart. Cell Biol Int 1996; 20(9): 621-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/cbir.1996.0081] [PMID: 8948124]
[31]
Kasuga H, Hosogane N, Matsuoka K, et al. Characterization of transgenic rats constitutively expressing vitamin D-24-hydroxylase gene. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2002; 297(5): 1332-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0006-291X(02)02254-4] [PMID: 12372434]
[32]
Wöbke TK, Sorg BL, Steinhilber D. Vitamin D in inflammatory diseases. Front Physiol 2014; 5: 244.
[PMID: 25071589]
[33]
Harrington RA. Targeting inflammation in coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med 2017; 377(12): 1197-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMe1709904] [PMID: 28844177]
[34]
Ridker PM, Everett BM, Thuren T, et al. Antiinflammatory therapy with canakinumab for atherosclerotic disease. N Engl J Med 2017; 377(12): 1119-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1707914] [PMID: 28845751]
[35]
Martinesi M, Bruni S, Stio M, Treves C. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 inhibits tumor necrosis factor-alpha-induced adhesion molecule expression in endothelial cells. Cell Biol Int 2006; 30(4): 365-75.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cellbi.2006.01.004] [PMID: 16549374]
[36]
Norman PE, Powell JT. Vitamin D and cardiovascular disease. Circ Res 2014; 114(2): 379-93.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.113.301241] [PMID: 24436433]
[37]
Brown AJ, Dusso A, Slatopolsky E, Vitamin D, Vitamin D. Am J Physiol 1999; 277(2): F157-75.
[PMID: 10444570]
[38]
Barsony J, Prufer K. Vitamin D receptor and retinoid X receptor interactions in motion. Vitam Horm 2002; 65: 345-76.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0083-6729(02)65071-X] [PMID: 12481554]
[39]
Pierce RA, Kolodziej ME, Parks WC. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 represses tropoelastin expression by a posttranscriptional mechanism. J Biol Chem 1992; 267(16): 11593-9.
[PMID: 1597486]
[40]
Veldman CM, Cantorna MT, DeLuca HF. Expression of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) receptor in the immune system. Arch Biochem Biophys 2000; 374(2): 334-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/abbi.1999.1605] [PMID: 10666315]
[41]
Willheim M, Thien R, Schrattbauer K, et al. Regulatory effects of 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on the cytokine production of human peripheral blood lymphocytes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999; 84(10): 3739-44.
[PMID: 10523023]
[42]
O’Connell TD, Berry JE, Jarvis AK, Somerman MJ, Simpson RU. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 regulation of cardiac myocyte proliferation and hypertrophy. Am J Physiol 1997; 272(4 Pt 2): H1751-8.
[PMID: 9139959]
[43]
Chen S, Law CS, Grigsby CL, et al. Cardiomyocyte-specific deletion of the vitamin D receptor gene results in cardiac hypertrophy. Circulation 2011; 124(17): 1838-47.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.032680] [PMID: 21947295]
[44]
Li YC, Kong J, Wei M, Chen ZF, Liu SQ, Cao LP. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D(3) is a negative endocrine regulator of the renin-angiotensin system. J Clin Invest 2002; 110(2): 229-38.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1172/JCI0215219] [PMID: 12122115]
[45]
Pilz S, Tomaschitz A, Ritz E, Pieber TR. Vitamin D status and arterial hypertension: a systematic review. Nat Rev Cardiol 2009; 6(10): 621-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrcardio.2009.135] [PMID: 19687790]
[46]
Al Mheid I, Quyyumi AA. Vitamin D and Cardiovascular Disease: Controversy Unresolved. J Am Coll Cardiol 2017; 70(1): 89-100.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2017.05.031] [PMID: 28662812]
[47]
Timms PM, Mannan N, Hitman GA, et al. Circulating MMP9, vitamin D and variation in the TIMP-1 response with VDR genotype: mechanisms for inflammatory damage in chronic disorders? QJM 2002; 95(12): 787-96.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/qjmed/95.12.787] [PMID: 12454321]
[48]
Wasse H, Cardarelli F, De Staercke C, Hooper C, Veledar E, Guessous I. 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration is inversely associated with serum MMP-9 in a cross-sectional study of African American ESRD patients. BMC Nephrol 2011; 12: 24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2369-12-24] [PMID: 21600051]
[49]
Amer M, Qayyum R. Relation between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and C-reactive protein in asymptomatic adults (from the continuous National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2001 to 2006). Am J Cardiol 2012; 109(2): 226-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amjcard.2011.08.032] [PMID: 21996139]
[50]
Schleithoff SS, Zittermann A, Tenderich G, Berthold HK, Stehle P, Koerfer R. Vitamin D supplementation improves cytokine profiles in patients with congestive heart failure: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 2006; 83(4): 754-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/83.4.754] [PMID: 16600924]
[51]
Van den Berghe G, Van Roosbroeck D, Vanhove P, Wouters PJ, De Pourcq L, Bouillon R. Bone turnover in prolonged critical illness: effect of vitamin D. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003; 88(10): 4623-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2003-030358] [PMID: 14557432]
[52]
Wang J, Zhou JJ, Robertson GR, Lee VW. vitamin d in vascular calcification: a double-edged sword? Nutrients 2018; 10(5)E652
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu10050652] [PMID: 29786640]
[53]
Watson KE, Abrolat ML, Malone LL, et al. Active serum vitamin D levels are inversely correlated with coronary calcification. Circulation 1997; 96(6): 1755-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.96.6.1755] [PMID: 9323058]
[54]
van Ballegooijen AJ, Beulens JW. The role of vitamin k status in cardiovascular health: evidence from observational and clinical studies. Curr Nutr Rep 2017; 6(3): 197-205.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13668-017-0208-8] [PMID: 28944098]
[55]
Fu X, Wang XD, Mernitz H, Wallin R, Shea MK, Booth SL. 9-Cis retinoic acid reduces 1alpha,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol-induced renal calcification by altering vitamin K-dependent gamma-carboxylation of matrix gamma-carboxyglutamic acid protein in A/J male mice. J Nutr 2008; 138(12): 2337-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/jn.108.093724] [PMID: 19022954]
[56]
Arbour NC, Darwish HM, DeLuca HF. Transcriptional control of the osteocalcin gene by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-2 and its 24-epimer in rat osteosarcoma cells. Biochim Biophys Acta 1995; 1263(2): 147-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0167-4781(95)00091-T] [PMID: 7640305]
[57]
Seyama Y, Horiuch M, Hayashi M, Kanke Y. Effect of vitamin K2 on experimental calcinosis induced by vitamin D2 in rat soft tissue. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 1996; 66(1): 36-8.
[PMID: 8698544]
[58]
Wajih N, Sane DC, Hutson SM, Wallin R. The inhibitory effect of calumenin on the vitamin K-dependent gamma-carboxylation system. Characterization of the system in normal and warfarin-resistant rats. J Biol Chem 2004; 279(24): 25276-83.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M401645200] [PMID: 15075329]
[59]
Luo G, Ducy P, McKee MD, et al. Spontaneous calcification of arteries and cartilage in mice lacking matrix GLA protein. Nature 1997; 386(6620): 78-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/386078a0] [PMID: 9052783]
[60]
Vaidya A, Forman JP, Hopkins PN, Seely EW, Williams JS. 25-Hydroxyvitamin D is associated with plasma renin activity and the pressor response to dietary sodium intake in Caucasians. J Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst 2011; 12(3): 311-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1470320310391922] [PMID: 21330422]
[61]
Martins D, Wolf M, Pan D, et al. Prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors and the serum levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D in the United States: data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Arch Intern Med 2007; 167(11): 1159-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archinte.167.11.1159] [PMID: 17563024]
[62]
Burgaz A, Orsini N, Larsson SC, Wolk A. Blood 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration and hypertension: a meta-analysis. J Hypertens 2011; 29(4): 636-45.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0b013e32834320f9] [PMID: 21191311]
[63]
Yuan W, Pan W, Kong J, et al. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 suppresses renin gene transcription by blocking the activity of the cyclic AMP response element in the renin gene promoter. J Biol Chem 2007; 282(41): 29821-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M705495200] [PMID: 17690094]
[64]
Carthy EP, Yamashita W, Hsu A, Ooi BS. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 and rat vascular smooth muscle cell growth. Hypertension 1989; 13(6 Pt 2): 954-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.HYP.13.6.954] [PMID: 2786849]
[65]
Zehnder D, Bland R, Chana RS, et al. Synthesis of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) by human endothelial cells is regulated by inflammatory cytokines: a novel autocrine determinant of vascular cell adhesion. J Am Soc Nephrol 2002; 13(3): 621-9.
[PMID: 11856765]
[66]
Somjen D, Weisman Y, Kohen F, et al. 25-hydroxyvitamin D3-1alpha-hydroxylase is expressed in human vascular smooth muscle cells and is upregulated by parathyroid hormone and estrogenic compounds. Circulation 2005; 111(13): 1666-71.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000160353.27927.70] [PMID: 15795327]
[67]
Snijder MB, Lips P, Seidell JC, et al. Vitamin D status and parathyroid hormone levels in relation to blood pressure: a population-based study in older men and women. J Intern Med 2007; 261(6): 558-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2796.2007.01778.x] [PMID: 17547711]
[68]
Forman JP, Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Curhan GC. Vitamin D intake and risk of incident hypertension: results from three large prospective cohort studies. Hypertension 2005; 46(4): 676-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.HYP.0000182662.82666.37] [PMID: 16144983]
[69]
McKibben RA, Zhao D, Lutsey PL, et al. Factors Associated With Change in 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Levels Over Longitudinal Follow-Up in the ARIC Study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2016; 101(1): 33-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2015-1711] [PMID: 26509869]
[70]
Forman JP, Giovannucci E, Holmes MD, et al. Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and risk of incident hypertension. Hypertension 2007; 49(5): 1063-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.107.087288] [PMID: 17372031]
[71]
Scragg R, Sowers M, Bell C. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D, ethnicity, and blood pressure in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Am J Hypertens 2007; 20(7): 713-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amjhyper.2007.01.017] [PMID: 17586404]
[72]
Martini LA, Wood RJ. Vitamin D and blood pressure connection: update on epidemiologic, clinical, and mechanistic evidence. Nutr Rev 2008; 66(5): 291-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.2008.00035.x] [PMID: 18454816]
[73]
Stamler J, Rose G, Stamler R, Elliott P, Dyer A, Marmot M. INTERSALT study findings.. Public health and medical care implications. Hypertension 1989; 14(5): 570-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.HYP.14.5.570] [PMID: 2807518]
[74]
van Ballegooijen AJ, Gansevoort RT, Lambers-Heerspink HJ, et al. Plasma 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin d and the risk of developing hyper-tension: the prevention of renal and vascular end-stage disease study. Hypertension 2015; 66(3): 563-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.115.05837] [PMID: 26195480]
[75]
Jorde R, Grimnes G. Lost relation between blood pressure and serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D. Blood Press 2019; 28(1): 64-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08037051.2018.1547628] [PMID: 30585521]
[76]
Pfeifer M, Begerow B, Minne HW, Nachtigall D, Hansen C. Effects of a short-term vitamin D(3) and calcium supplementation on blood pressure and parathyroid hormone levels in elderly women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86(4): 1633-7.
[PMID: 11297596]
[77]
Krause R, Bühring M, Hopfenmüller W, Holick MF, Sharma AM. Ultraviolet B and blood pressure. Lancet 1998; 352(9129): 709-10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)60827-6] [PMID: 9728997]
[78]
Forman JP, Scott JB, Ng K, et al. Effect of vitamin D supplementation on blood pressure in blacks. Hypertension 2013; 61(4): 779-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.111.00659] [PMID: 23487599]
[79]
Witham MD, Price RJ, Struthers AD, et al. Cholecalciferol treatment to reduce blood pressure in older patients with isolated systolic hypertension: the VitDISH randomized controlled trial. JAMA Intern Med 2013; 173(18): 1672-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.9043] [PMID: 23939263]
[80]
Arora P, Song Y, Dusek J, et al. Vitamin D therapy in individuals with prehypertension or hypertension: the DAYLIGHT trial. Circulation 2015; 131(3): 254-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.011732] [PMID: 25359163]
[81]
Pilz S, Gaksch M, Kienreich K, et al. Effects of vitamin D on blood pressure and cardiovascular risk factors: a randomized controlled trial. Hypertension 2015; 65(6): 1195-201.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.115.05319] [PMID: 25801871]
[82]
Pittas AG, Dawson-Hughes B, Li T, et al. Vitamin D and calcium intake in relation to type 2 diabetes in women. Diabetes Care 2006; 29(3): 650-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diacare.29.03.06.dc05-1961] [PMID: 16505521]
[83]
Pittas AG, Sun Q, Manson JE, Dawson-Hughes B, Hu FB. Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration and risk of incident type 2 diabetes in women. Diabetes Care 2010; 33(9): 2021-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc10-0790] [PMID: 20805275]
[84]
Peechakara SV, Pittas AG. Vitamin D as a potential modifier of diabetes risk. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 2008; 4(4): 182-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ncpendmet0762] [PMID: 18283325]
[85]
van Etten E, Mathieu C. Immunoregulation by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3: basic concepts. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2005; 97(1-2): 93-101.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsbmb.2005.06.002] [PMID: 16046118]
[86]
Adams JS, Hewison M. Unexpected actions of vitamin D: new perspectives on the regulation of innate and adaptive immunity. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 2008; 4(2): 80-90.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ncpendmet0716] [PMID: 18212810]
[87]
Kolb H, Mandrup-Poulsen T. An immune origin of type 2 diabetes? Diabetologia 2005; 48(6): 1038-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00125-005-1764-9] [PMID: 15864529]
[88]
Maddaloni E, Cavallari I, Napoli N, Conte C. Vitamin D and diabetes mellitus. Front Horm Res 2018; 50: 161-76.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000486083] [PMID: 29597238]
[89]
Mutlu A, Mutlu GY, Özsu E, Çizmecioğlu FM, Hatun Ş. Vitamin D deficiency in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes. J Clin Res Pediatr Endocrinol 2011; 3(4): 179-83.
[PMID: 22155459]
[90]
Al-Zubeidi H, Leon-Chi L, Newfield RS. Low vitamin D level in pediatric patients with new onset type 1 diabetes is common, especially if in ketoacidosis. Pediatr Diabetes 2016; 17(8): 592-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/pedi.12342] [PMID: 26694737]
[91]
Raab J, Giannopoulou EZ, Schneider S, et al. Prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in pre-type 1 diabetes and its association with disease progression. Diabetologia 2014; 57(5): 902-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00125-014-3181-4] [PMID: 24531263]
[92]
Shen L, Zhuang QS, Ji HF. Assessment of vitamin D levels in type 1 and type 2 diabetes patients: Results from metaanalysis. Mol Nutr Food Res 2016; 60(5): 1059-67.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.201500937] [PMID: 26898922]
[93]
Thorsen SU, Mortensen HB, Carstensen B, et al. No difference in vitamin D levels between children newly diagnosed with type 1 diabetes and their healthy siblings: a 13-year nationwide Danish study. Diabetes Care 2013; 36(9): e157-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc13-0342] [PMID: 23970730]
[94]
Stene LC, Joner G. Use of cod liver oil during the first year of life is associated with lower risk of childhood-onset type 1 diabetes: a large, population-based, case-control study. Am J Clin Nutr 2003; 78(6): 1128-34.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/78.6.1128] [PMID: 14668274]
[95]
Hyppönen E, Läärä E, Reunanen A, Järvelin MR, Virtanen SM. Intake of vitamin D and risk of type 1 diabetes: a birth-cohort study. Lancet 2001; 358(9292): 1500-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(01)06580-1] [PMID: 11705562]
[96]
Afzal S, Bojesen SE, Nordestgaard BG. Low 25-hydroxyvitamin D and risk of type 2 diabetes: a prospective cohort study and metaanalysis. Clin Chem 2013; 59(2): 381-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1373/clinchem.2012.193003] [PMID: 23232064]
[97]
Lucato P, Solmi M, Maggi S, et al. Low vitamin D levels increase the risk of type 2 diabetes in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Maturitas 2017; 100: 8-15.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.maturitas.2017.02.016] [PMID: 28539181]
[98]
Pittas AG, Harris SS, Stark PC, Dawson-Hughes B. The effects of calcium and vitamin D supplementation on blood glucose and markers of inflammation in nondiabetic adults. Diabetes Care 2007; 30(4): 980-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc06-1994] [PMID: 17277040]
[99]
Fliser D, Stefanski A, Franek E, Fode P, Gudarzi A, Ritz E. No effect of calcitriol on insulin-mediated glucose uptake in healthy subjects. Eur J Clin Invest 1997; 27(7): 629-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2362.1997.1520699.x] [PMID: 9263752]
[100]
Kayaniyil S, Vieth R, Retnakaran R, et al. Association of vitamin D with insulin resistance and beta-cell dysfunction in subjects at risk for type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2010; 33(6): 1379-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc09-2321] [PMID: 20215450]
[101]
Danziger J, Biggs ML, Niemi M, et al. Circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D is associated with insulin resistance cross-sectionally but not longitudinally in older adults: The Cardiovascular Health Study. Metabolism 2013; 62(12): 1788-94.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.metabol.2013.07.008] [PMID: 23987236]
[102]
Balvers MG, Brouwer-Brolsma EM, Endenburg S, de Groot LC, Kok FJ, Gunnewiek JK. Recommended intakes of vitamin D to optimise health, associated circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations, and dosing regimens to treat deficiency: workshop report and overview of current literature. J Nutr Sci 2015; 4e23
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/jns.2015.10] [PMID: 26090099]
[103]
Pilz S, Zittermann A, Trummer C, et al. Vitamin D testing and treatment: a narrative review of current evidence. Endocr Connect 2019; 8(2): R27-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/EC-18-0432] [PMID: 30650061]
[104]
Moreira-Lucas TS, Duncan AM, Rabasa-Lhoret R, et al. Effect of vitamin D supplementation on oral glucose tolerance in individuals with low vitamin D status and increased risk for developing type 2 diabetes (EVIDENCE): A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Diabetes Obes Metab 2017; 19(1): 133-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/dom.12794] [PMID: 27717236]
[105]
Avenell A, Cook JA, MacLennan GS, McPherson GC. Vitamin D supplementation and type 2 diabetes: a substudy of a randomised placebo-controlled trial in older people (RECORD trial, ISRCTN 51647438). Age Ageing 2009; 38(5): 606-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ageing/afp109] [PMID: 19617604]
[106]
Autier P, Mullie P, Macacu A, et al. Effect of vitamin D supplementation on non-skeletal disorders: a systematic review of meta-analyses and randomised trials. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2017; 5(12): 986-1004.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(17)30357-1] [PMID: 29102433]
[107]
Mirhosseini N, Vatanparast H, Mazidi M, Kimball SM. The effect of improved serum 25-hydroxyvitamin d status on glycemic control in diabetic patients: a meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2017; 102(9): 3097-110.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2017-01024] [PMID: 28957454]
[108]
Swart KM, Lips P, Brouwer IA, et al. Effects of vitamin D supplementation on markers for cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes: an individual participant data meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Clin Nutr 2018; 107(6): 1043-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqy078] [PMID: 29868916]
[109]
Bizzarri C, Pitocco D, Napoli N, et al. No protective effect of calcitriol on beta-cell function in recent-onset type 1 diabetes: the IMDIAB XIII trial. Diabetes Care 2010; 33(9): 1962-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/dc10-0814] [PMID: 20805274]
[110]
Mitri J, Muraru MD, Pittas AG. Vitamin D and type 2 diabetes: a systematic review. Eur J Clin Nutr 2011; 65(9): 1005-15.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2011.118] [PMID: 21731035]
[111]
Jorde R, Grimnes G. Vitamin D and metabolic health with special reference to the effect of vitamin D on serum lipids. Prog Lipid Res 2011; 50(4): 303-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.plipres.2011.05.001] [PMID: 21640757]
[112]
Forrest KY, Stuhldreher WL. Prevalence and correlates of vitamin D deficiency in US adults. Nutr Res 2011; 31(1): 48-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nutres.2010.12.001] [PMID: 21310306]
[113]
Jorde R, Grimnes G. Exploring the association between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and serum lipids-more than confounding? Eur J Clin Nutr 2018; 72(4): 526-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41430-018-0088-z] [PMID: 29434318]
[114]
Ponda MP, Huang X, Odeh MA, Breslow JL, Kaufman HW. Vitamin D may not improve lipid levels: a serial clinical laboratory data study. Circulation 2012; 126(3): 270-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.111.077875] [PMID: 22718799]
[115]
Schwetz V, Scharnagl H, Trummer C, et al. Vitamin D supplementation and lipoprotein metabolism: A randomized controlled trial. J Clin Lipidol 2018; 12(3): 588-96. e4
[116]
Mirhosseini N, Rainsbury J, Kimball SM. Vitamin D Vitamin Dsupplementation, Serum 25(OH)D Concentrations and Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Front Cardiovasc Med 2018; 5: 87.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2018.00087] [PMID: 30050908]
[117]
Demer LL, Hsu JJ, Tintut Y. Steroid Hormone Vitamin D: Implications for Cardiovascular Disease. Circ Res 2018; 122(11): 1576-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.118.311585] [PMID: 29798901]
[118]
Zittermann A, Vitamin D. Vitamin D status, supplementation and cardiovascular disease. Anticancer Res 2018; 38(2): 1179-86.
[PMID: 29374756]
[119]
Anderson JL, May HT, Horne BD, et al. Relation of vitamin D deficiency to cardiovascular risk factors, disease status, and incident events in a general healthcare population. Am J Cardiol 2010; 106(7): 963-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amjcard.2010.05.027] [PMID: 20854958]
[120]
Parker J, Hashmi O, Dutton D, et al. Levels of vitamin D and cardiometabolic disorders: systematic review and meta-analysis. Maturitas 2010; 65(3): 225-36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.maturitas.2009.12.013] [PMID: 20031348]
[121]
Florentin M, Elisaf MS, Mikhailidis DP, Liberopoulos EN. Vitamin D and metabolic syndrome: is there a link? Curr Pharm Des 2010; 16(30): 3417-34.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/138161210793563509] [PMID: 20819071]
[122]
Cigolini M, Iagulli MP, Miconi V, Galiotto M, Lombardi S, Targher G. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 concentrations and prevalence of cardiovascular disease among type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care 2006; 29(3): 722-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diacare.29.03.06.dc05-2148] [PMID: 16505539]
[123]
van Ballegooijen AJ, Reinders I, Visser M, Brouwer IA. Parathyroid hormone and cardiovascular disease events: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Am Heart J 2013; 165(5): 655-64. 64 e1-5
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ahj.2013.02.014]
[124]
Huang C, Shapses SA, Wang X. Association of plasma parathyroid hormone with metabolic syndrome and risk for cardiovascular disease. Endocr Pract 2013; 19(4): 712-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4158/EP12440.RA] [PMID: 23512391]
[125]
Folsom AR, Alonso A, Misialek JR, et al. Parathyroid hormone concentration and risk of cardiovascular diseases: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study. Am Heart J 2014; 168(3): 296-302.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ahj.2014.04.017] [PMID: 25173540]
[126]
van Ballegooijen AJ, Kestenbaum B, Sachs MC, et al. Association of 25-hydroxyvitamin D and parathyroid hormone with incident hypertension: MESA (Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis). J Am Coll Cardiol 2014; 63(12): 1214-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2014.01.012] [PMID: 24480627]
[127]
Rautiainen S, Wang L, Manson JE, Sesso HD. The role of calcium in the prevention of cardiovascular disease--a review of observational studies and randomized clinical trials. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2013; 15(11): 362.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11883-013-0362-4] [PMID: 24022513]
[128]
Chung M, Tang AM, Fu Z, Wang DD, Newberry SJ. Calcium intake and cardiovascular disease risk: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med 2016; 165(12): 856-66.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/M16-1165] [PMID: 27776363]
[129]
Kendrick J, Targher G, Smits G, Chonchol M. 25-Hydroxyvitamin D deficiency is independently associated with cardiovascular disease in the third national health and nutrition examination survey. Atherosclerosis 2009; 205(1): 255-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2008.10.033] [PMID: 19091317]
[130]
Gotsman I, Shauer A, Zwas DR, et al. Vitamin D deficiency is a predictor of reduced survival in patients with heart failure; vitamin D supplementation improves outcome. Eur J Heart Fail 2012; 14(4): 357-66.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/eurjhf/hfr175] [PMID: 22308011]
[131]
Melamed ML, Muntner P, Michos ED, et al. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and the prevalence of peripheral arterial disease: results from NHANES 2001 to 2004. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2008; 28(6): 1179-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.108.165886] [PMID: 18417640]
[132]
Fahrleitner-Pammer A, Obernosterer A, Pilger E, et al. Hypovitaminosis D, impaired bone turnover and low bone mass are common in patients with peripheral arterial disease. Osteoporos Int 2005; 16(3): 319-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00198-004-1693-3] [PMID: 15726236]
[133]
Fahrleitner A, Dobnig H, Obernosterer A, et al. Vitamin D deficiency and secondary hyperparathyroidism are common complications in patients with peripheral arterial disease. J Gen Intern Med 2002; 17(9): 663-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1525-1497.2002.11033.x] [PMID: 12220361]
[134]
McDermott MM, Liu K, Ferrucci L, et al. Vitamin D status, functional decline, and mortality in peripheral artery disease. Vasc Med 2014; 19(1): 18-26.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1358863X13518364] [PMID: 24442622]
[135]
McDermott MM, Liu K, Ferrucci L, et al. Vitamin D status and functional performance in peripheral artery disease. Vasc Med 2012; 17(5): 294-302.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1358863X12448457] [PMID: 22814997]
[136]
Veronese N, De Rui M, Bolzetta F, et al. Serum 25-Hydroxyvitamin D and the incidence of peripheral artery disease in the elderly: The Pro VA study. J Atheroscler Thromb 2015; 22(7): 726-34.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5551/jat.28134] [PMID: 25739824]
[137]
Iannuzzo G, Forte F, Lupoli R, Di Minno MND. Association of Vitamin D deficiency with peripheral arterial disease: a meta-analysis of literature studies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2018.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2018-00136]
[138]
Pilz S, März W, Wellnitz B, et al. Association of vitamin D deficiency with heart failure and sudden cardiac death in a large cross-sectional study of patients referred for coronary angiography. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008; 93(10): 3927-35.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2008-0784] [PMID: 18682515]
[139]
Amer M, Qayyum R. Relationship between 25-hydroxyvitamin D and all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality. Am J Med 2013; 126(6): 509-14.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2012.11.021] [PMID: 23601272]
[140]
Zhang R, Li B, Gao X, et al. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and the risk of cardiovascular disease: dose-response meta-analysis of pro-spective studies. Am J Clin Nutr 2017; 105(4): 810-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.116.140392] [PMID: 28251933]
[141]
Afzal S, Brøndum-Jacobsen P, Bojesen SE, Nordestgaard BG. Genetically low vitamin D concentrations and increased mortality: Mendelian randomisation analysis in three large cohorts. BMJ 2014; 349: g6330.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.g6330] [PMID: 25406188]
[142]
Trummer O, Pilz S, Hoffmann MM, et al. Vitamin D and mortality: a Mendelian randomization study. Clin Chem 2013; 59(5): 793-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1373/clinchem.2012.193185] [PMID: 23319826]
[143]
Gaksch M, Jorde R, Grimnes G, et al. Vitamin D and mortality: Individual participant data meta-analysis of standardized 25-hydroxyvitamin D in 26916 individuals from a European consortium. PLoS One 2017; 12(2)e0170791
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0170791] [PMID: 28207791]
[144]
Manouchehri N, Vakil-Asadollahi M, Zandifar A, Rasmani F, Saadatnia M, Vitamin D. Vitamin D status in small vessel and large vessel ischemic stroke patients: a case-control study. Adv Biomed Res 2017; 6: 146.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2277-9175.219411] [PMID: 29285476]
[145]
Wang L, Song Y, Manson JE, et al. Circulating 25-hydroxy-vitamin D and risk of cardiovascular disease: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes 2012; 5(6): 819-29.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCOUTCOMES.112.967604] [PMID: 23149428]
[146]
Degerud E, Nygård O, de Vogel S, et al. Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D and mortality in patients with suspected stable angina pectoris. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2018; 103(3): 1161-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2017-02328] [PMID: 29325121]
[147]
Scragg R, Jackson R, Holdaway IM, Lim T, Beaglehole R. Myocardial infarction is inversely associated with plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 levels: a community-based study. Int J Epidemiol 1990; 19(3): 559-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ije/19.3.559] [PMID: 2262248]
[148]
Giovannucci E, Liu Y, Hollis BW, Rimm EB. 25-hydroxyvitamin D and risk of myocardial infarction in men: a prospective study. Arch Intern Med 2008; 168(11): 1174-80.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archinte.168.11.1174] [PMID: 18541825]
[149]
Wang TJ, Pencina MJ, Booth SL, et al. Vitamin D deficiency and risk of cardiovascular disease. Circulation 2008; 117(4): 503-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.706127] [PMID: 18180395]
[150]
Chowdhury R, Stevens S, Ward H, Chowdhury S, Sajjad A, Franco OH. Circulating vitamin D, calcium and risk of cerebrovascular disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Epidemiol 2012; 27(8): 581-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10654-012-9729-z] [PMID: 22961293]
[151]
Brøndum-Jacobsen P, Benn M, Jensen GB, Nordestgaard BG. 25-hydroxyvitamin d levels and risk of ischemic heart disease, myocardial infarction, and early death: population-based study and meta-analyses of 18 and 17 studies. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2012; 32(11): 2794-802.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.112.248039] [PMID: 22936341]
[152]
Brøndum-Jacobsen P, Nordestgaard BG, Schnohr P, Benn M. 25-hydroxyvitamin D and symptomatic ischemic stroke: an original study and meta-analysis. Ann Neurol 2013; 73(1): 38-47.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ana.23738] [PMID: 23225498]
[153]
Sun Q, Pan A, Hu FB, Manson JE, Rexrode KM. 25-Hydroxyvitamin D levels and the risk of stroke: a prospective study and meta-analysis. Stroke 2012; 43(6): 1470-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.111.636910] [PMID: 22442173]
[154]
Judd SE, Morgan CJ, Panwar B, et al. Vitamin D deficiency and incident stroke risk in community-living black and white adults. Int J Stroke 2016; 11(1): 93-102.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1747493015607515] [PMID: 26763025]
[155]
Dobnig H, Pilz S, Scharnagl H, et al. Independent association of low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin d and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin d levels with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. Arch Intern Med 2008; 168(12): 1340-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archinte.168.12.1340] [PMID: 18574092]
[156]
Zittermann A, Iodice S, Pilz S, Grant WB, Bagnardi V, Gandini S. Vitamin D deficiency and mortality risk in the general population: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Am J Clin Nutr 2012; 95(1): 91-100.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.111.014779] [PMID: 22170374]
[157]
Zittermann A, Ernst JB, Prokop S, et al. Effect of vitamin D on all-cause mortality in heart failure (EVITA): a 3-year randomized clinical trial with 4000 IU vitamin D daily. Eur Heart J 2017; 38(29): 2279-86.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehx235] [PMID: 28498942]
[158]
Zittermann A, Schleithoff SS, Tenderich G, Berthold HK, Körfer R, Stehle P. Low vitamin D status: a contributing factor in the pathogenesis of congestive heart failure? J Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 41(1): 105-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0735-1097(02)02624-4] [PMID: 12570952]
[159]
Zittermann A, Schleithoff SS, Koerfer R. Vitamin D insufficiency in congestive heart failure: why and what to do about it? Heart Fail Rev 2006; 11(1): 25-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10741-006-9190-8] [PMID: 16819575]
[160]
Laguardia SP, Dockery BK, Bhattacharya SK, Nelson MD, Carbone LD, Weber KT. Secondary hyperparathyroidism and hypovitaminosis D in African-Americans with decompensated heart failure. Am J Med Sci 2006; 332(3): 112-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00000441-200609000-00003] [PMID: 16969139]
[161]
Maiya S, Sullivan I, Allgrove J, et al. Hypocalcaemia and vitamin D deficiency: an important, but preventable, cause of life-threatening infant heart failure. Heart 2008; 94(5): 581-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/hrt.2007.119792] [PMID: 17690157]
[162]
Weber KT, Simpson RU, Carbone LD. Vitamin D and calcium dyshomoeostasis-associated heart failure. Heart 2008; 94(5): 540-1.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/hrt.2007.126359] [PMID: 18413299]
[163]
Weishaar RE, Kim SN, Saunders DE, Simpson RU. Involvement of vitamin D3 with cardiovascular function. III. Effects on physical and morphological properties. Am J Physiol 1990; 258(1 Pt 1): E134-42.
[PMID: 2154115]
[164]
Simpson RU, Hershey SH, Nibbelink KA. Characterization of heart size and blood pressure in the vitamin D receptor knockout mouse. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2007; 103(3-5): 521-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsbmb.2006.12.098] [PMID: 17275289]
[165]
Mann DL, Young JB. Basic mechanisms in congestive heart failure. Recognizing the role of proinflammatory cytokines. Chest 1994; 105(3): 897-904.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1378/chest.105.3.897] [PMID: 8131560]
[166]
Kell R, Haunstetter A, Dengler TJ, Zugck C, Kübler W, Haass M. Do cytokines enable risk stratification to be improved in NYHA functional class III patients? Comparison with other potential predictors of prognosis. Eur Heart J 2002; 23(1): 70-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1053/euhj.2001.2780] [PMID: 11741364]
[167]
Rauchhaus M, Doehner W, Francis DP, et al. Plasma cytokine parameters and mortality in patients with chronic heart failure. Circulation 2000; 102(25): 3060-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.102.25.3060] [PMID: 11120695]
[168]
Zhu Y, Mahon BD, Froicu M, Cantorna MT. Calcium and 1 alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 target the TNF-alpha pathway to suppress experimental inflammatory bowel disease. Eur J Immunol 2005; 35(1): 217-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/eji.200425491] [PMID: 15593122]
[169]
Michel G, Gailis A, Jarzebska-Deussen B, Müschen A, Mirmohammadsadegh A, Ruzicka T. 1,25-(OH)2-vitamin D3 and calcipotriol induce IL-10 receptor gene expression in human epidermal cells. Inflamm Res 1997; 46(1): 32-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s000110050042] [PMID: 9117516]
[170]
Canning MO, Grotenhuis K, de Wit H, Ruwhof C, Drexhage HA. 1-alpha,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25(OH)(2)D(3)) hampers the maturation of fully active immature dendritic cells from monocytes. Eur J Endocrinol 2001; 145(3): 351-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1530/eje.0.1450351] [PMID: 11517017]
[171]
Bjelakovic G, Gluud LL, Nikolova D, et al. Vitamin D supplementation for prevention of mortality in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014; (1): CD007470
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD007470.pub3] [PMID: 24414552]
[172]
Bolland MJ, Grey A, Gamble GD, Reid IR. The effect of vitamin D supplementation on skeletal, vascular, or cancer outcomes: a trial sequential meta-analysis. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2014; 2(4): 307-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(13)70212-2] [PMID: 24703049]
[173]
Theodoratou E, Tzoulaki I, Zgaga L, Ioannidis JP. Vitamin D and multiple health outcomes: umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses of observational studies and randomised trials. BMJ 2014; 348: g2035.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.g2035] [PMID: 24690624]
[174]
Chowdhury R, Kunutsor S, Vitezova A, et al. Vitamin D and risk of cause specific death: systematic review and meta-analysis of obser-vational cohort and randomised intervention studies. BMJ 2014; 348: g1903.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.g1903] [PMID: 24690623]
[175]
Trivedi DP, Doll R, Khaw KT. Effect of four monthly oral vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) supplementation on fractures and mortality in men and women living in the community: randomised double blind controlled trial. BMJ 2003; 326(7387): 469.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.326.7387.469] [PMID: 12609940]
[176]
Ford JA, MacLennan GS, Avenell A, Bolland M, Grey A, Witham M. Cardiovascular disease and vitamin D supplementation: trial analysis, systematic review, and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 2014; 100(3): 746-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.113.082602] [PMID: 25057156]
[177]
Scragg R, Waayer D, Stewart AW, et al. The Vitamin D Assessment (ViDA) Study: design of a randomized controlled trial of vitamin D supplementation for the prevention of cardiovascular disease, acute respiratory infection, falls and non-vertebral fractures. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2016; 164: 318-25.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.09.010] [PMID: 26365555]
[178]
Scragg R, Stewart AW, Waayer D, et al. Effect of monthly high-dose vitamin D supplementation on cardiovascular disease in the vitamin d assessment study: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Cardiol 2017; 2(6): 608-16.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamacardio.2017.0175] [PMID: 28384800]
[179]
Zittermann A, Pilz S, Vitamin D. Vitamin D supplementation and cardiovascular disease risk. JAMA Cardiol 2017; 2(11): 1280-1.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamacardio.2017.2935] [PMID: 28854310]
[180]
Hollis BW, Wagner CL. Clinical review: The role of the parent compound vitamin D with respect to metabolism and function: Why clinical dose intervals can affect clinical outcomes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013; 98(12): 4619-28.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jc.2013-2653] [PMID: 24106283]
[181]
Manson JE, Bassuk SS, Lee IM, et al. The VITamin D and OmegA-3 TriaL (VITAL): rationale and design of a large randomized controlled trial of vitamin D and marine omega-3 fatty acid supplements for the primary prevention of cancer and cardiovascular disease. Contemp Clin Trials 2012; 33(1): 159-71.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cct.2011.09.009] [PMID: 21986389]
[182]
Bassuk SS, Manson JE, Lee IM, et al. Baseline characteristics of participants in the vitamin D and omegA-3 trial (VITAL). Contemp Clin Trials 2016; 47: 235-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cct.2015.12.022] [PMID: 26767629]
[183]
Pradhan AD, Manson JE. .Update on the Vitamin D and OmegA-3 trial (VITAL). J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2016; 155(Pt B): 252-6.
[184]
Manson JE, Cook NR, Lee IM, et al. Marine n-3 fatty acids and prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer. N Engl J Med 2018.
[PMID: 30415637]
[185]
Manson JE, Cook NR, Lee IM, et al. Vitamin d supplements and prevention of cancer and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 2018.
[PMID: 30415629]
[186]
Afzal S, Nordestgaard BG. Vitamin D and risk of cardiovascular disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2017; 37(11): 1981-2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.117.310204] [PMID: 29070535]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
107
Wayfinder Image
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy